Iraqi Journal for Administrative Sciences

Some may see that talking about public policies is recent in its origins and appearance. They are right because this term did not appear with its methodological framework and scientific and academic content until the second half of this century. However, historical documents and events confirm without doubt the introduction of this term and the solidity of the scientific practices associated with it. The roots of public policies extend to the civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley, where Hammurabi embarked on his famous obelisk to document in it the most important principles and the most important starting points that regulate the behavior of individuals and groups and their relationship with the public authority represented by the king or pharaoh. If the attempts are simple and primitive from the contemporary point of view, then they are when evaluated within the framework of the historical and civilizational stage. What was presented in it is a great achievement and an invaluable contribution to humanity. Without those roots and practices, the contemporary field of public policy could not have emerged today and in the form, it is in. Logically, the characteristics, topics, and concerns of public policies today are different from what they were in the stages of their historical emergence. The contemporary industrial and technological revolution, the events of the two world wars, the political, economic, and social changes that followed, and other developments in modern life have complicated and deepened the contents of public policies and made them a practical and academic field that requires research, study, and specialization.

Many business establishments do not consider themselves engaging in international operations. Still, they have nonetheless been affected by global developments, and these developments have affected their costs, the prices of their products, and the intense competition among them. The strongest effect has come from fluctuations in foreign exchange rates. The main difference between local financial transactions and international financial transactions is that global financial transactions are carried out in different currencies through the foreign exchange market in which individual dealers, business establishments, and many banks can trade their money.
As long as the process of trading money occurs in more than one currency, it is necessary to determine the exchange rate between these currencies. Also, the currency conversion relationship is expressed in light of the relationship between the prices of these currencies. If the different foreign exchange rates do not fluctuate, there will be no difference due to dealing in several foreign currencies. As long as foreign exchange rates fluctuate, business enterprises are exposed to the risks arising from these fluctuations if they have net assets or liabilities in a foreign currency. When the net assets exceed the liabilities denominated in foreign currency, it is said that the enterprise is in a long position. Position because it will benefit if the value of the foreign currency rises, and when liabilities exceed assets denominated in the foreign currency, it is said that the establishment is in a short position because it will gain if the value of the foreign currency decreases.

In our contemporary, dynamic, changing, intertwined world, organizations generally face growing and accelerating challenges at all levels: technological, informational, economic, legal, local, regionally and globally. In these organizations’ efforts to confront it, they must search for a path that achieves one or more of the following goals:
1- Respect the desires of customers (consumers) and work to satisfy and fulfill them.
2- Going beyond local and regional borders to reach the global market with all its complexities, called export orientation.
3- Analyzing and understanding the interaction of market forces in all their dimensions (market economy).
To achieve the above, it is necessary to consider the forces of current and expected competition and to seek scientific and practical answers to vital questions: How do you outperform competitors? How do you differentiate from them?
This answer is for the organization to have a competitive advantage or (more) on a strong basis represented by the organization’s driving forces (the ability to innovate and modernize / the flow of operations/performance measurements / the organization’s culture/work teams), which it uses against the pressing forces (push forces). (Customers/shareholders/market interactions/competition/ common technology in global markets), that is, the task environment and the general environment surrounding the organization. In light of this, the organization is either a learner or a teacher; in other words, it is either a leader or a follower, and in both cases, it depends on the stage. Learning is considered one of the prevailing tools for an organization to enter the arena of global competition because learning allows it to answer the basic question, “What distinguishes us as an organization? It is the essence of the philosophy that calls for ‘Know yourself and know your competitor.’” Based on the above, different tools and approaches are used, and perhaps benchmarking is one of the most prominent tools in studying and analyzing distinguished (pioneering) applications to seize opportunities in the competitive environment to achieve competitive advantage.

Businesses rely on multiple financing sources to finance their operational, production, commercial, or service operations. These sources include owned and borrowed sources. The first includes common and preferred stocks, retained earnings, and surplus capital. The second contains loans of different terms (long, medium, and short-term) and commercial credit. Banking, as well as bonds. Each of these sources has a cost for its use in financing. Still, some writers believe that not calculating a cost on owned capital can be an acceptable measure, given the impossibility of separating the personality of the economic unit from its owners.
In contrast, other writers see the necessity of calculating it to know the efficiency of capital management. However, not calculating this cost reduces the effectiveness of the management’s financial reports and does not help the organization’s performance in exploiting or investing these in judging the sources, including retained profits as a source of self-financing (internal). This research revolves around the cost of the hypothesis. An alternative to this source is to compare the return that the establishment achieves from reinvesting it and the return that shareholders can achieve if paid as a dividend and reinvested by them.

Globalization is considered one of the most dangerous and important topics on the Arab scene at present and at all economic, social, cultural and political levels. Although this topic has received a great deal of attention from economists, political scientists, historians and Arab intellectuals, it has not received the same amount of attention from specialists in public administration. However, this topic concerns them more than others, is because the Arab state and its various administrative bodies are exposed to foreign pressures in all directions, which aim in their entirety to marginalize the basic role or function assigned to them. The structural distortions, philosophical and ideological changes, and the like have happened. They are happening to the Arab economy, culture and politics, and the like, would not have happened if not for the breaches that globalization has made in the entity of the Arab state and its agencies and the marginalization of its traditional responsibilities towards its societies. No doubt, confronting globalization requires creating a social and cultural environment. Economical.

Studying and analyzing the marketing mix for legal services is considered one of the main approaches to studying the subject of marketing legal services, as it expresses the general strategies that lawyers adopt in marketing themselves and the legal services they produce. Therefore, studying this mix would provide an integrated framework for the marketing program for lawyers. Can they? Relying on it in planning appropriate marketing strategies, through which the assigned goals are achieved by the best means and lowest costs. The increase in the number of lawyers and legal service providers, whether companies or individuals, has led to increased competition in this sector - and thus, the need has emerged to adopt the concept of marketing legal services. To achieve excellence and demand for purchasing these services.

The modern era has been associated with an ancient global phenomenon with newly developed roots, the phenomenon of “international business organizations whose roots extend back to before the nineteenth century. However, the scientific and technical inventions that appeared in the nineteenth century in both Europe and the United States of America helped in the emergence of these organizations that manufacture It produces goods in many countries, an example of which is the German company Siemens, which appeared in the fifties of the nineteenth century and was distinguished by the spread of its branches in England and Russia, the McCormick Company, and the Singer Sewing Machine Company, among others. However, the trend towards internationalization increased in the early twentieth century, and many international companies were transformed into companies, including (Swiss telematics companies). And in the sixties, other organizations, such as (Unilever) and (Royal Dish), appeared to this day. Their number increased after the development of communications and transportation technology. It worked to bring people closer together until, In the 1980s, thanks to satellites, the prophecy of Marshall McCoohan was fulfilled. They announced in the 1960s that the world, due to the amazing progress in the media, was heading towards becoming a small global prey.

Conflict has existed ever since humans found on the face of the earth its architecture and worship of its Creator, the Almighty. Glory be to Him. The Holy Qur’an tells us about the first conflict in history between the two sons of Adam (peace be upon him), Abel and Cain, motivated by jealousy, envy, and conflicting desires and personal interests for both of them. Since that time, man has known conflict. Conflict arises due to a conflict or clash of interests between two or more parties over a relatively rare resource that one or more can seize and deprive the other parties of, in whole or in part (Lewis, 1958). The man continued to think about finding sufficient and successful ways to avoid conflicts because of their dangerous effects and the disasters, calamities and woes they cause to all parties. He needed means that would prevent or mitigate the intensity of this conflict, stop it at a certain stage, or limit the degree of its impact and extent, and so he resorted to arbitration or litigation at times and to alliances, agreements, treaties, etc., to achieve that goal at other times.