Journal of Tikrit University for Humanities

During the 1990s, academic circles in Iraq and the Arab world in general developed an interest in studying Japan's internal political situation. Impressions of Japan's Renaissance and its Foreign Relations made up the majority of the literature about it. The nation had fertile ground to embrace modernity as a concept and put it into practice. In the middle of the nineteenth century, Japan opened its doors to the West, which accelerated the end of feudalism and the Tokugawa dynasty. As a result, tools were made available to rectify the political trajectory of Japan and establish constitutional foundations upon which the government was built. In order to establish a new Japan founded on a distinct nationalism that focused on the Emperor as the heir apparent to the gods and the source of the nation's power, the Japanese reform movement, or Meiji, emerged in 1867. The leaders of the reform movement aimed at unifying Japan in order to maintain their power. The formation of the contemporary Japanese state brought religion and state together. The idea of absolute power by divine right was suitably justified by ancient Japanese mythology. Based on Shinto (the way of the gods), the Japanese government used this divine prerogative for a unique political goal, especially to elucidate the belief in the emperor's supernatural authority, since his throne was inherited from the celestial gods. The reform movement succeeded in turning Japan into a wealthy nation with a powerful army capable of defeating China and Russia, two powerful nations. Japan emerged at the start of the twentieth century as a nation with more developed modern institutions than its neighbors.

The study examines the Ottoman archive records, which have significant relevance and contain valuable information, prompting scholars to use them for acquiring, disseminating, and benefiting from knowledge across several academic disciplines. The research seeks to unveil the Ottoman archives in its newly established place in the Turkish capital, that contains millions of manuscripts and documents representing over four centuries of the Ottoman state. Notably, this archive provides essential examples of manuscripts and documents that aid Arab researchers in the exploration of both modern and ancient history of the Arab region. This study examines the elements and principles utilized in the analysis and description of manuscripts and documents. Prior to this, the researcher will elucidate the methodology for engaging with the administration of the Ottoman archives in Istanbul, thereby facilitating access for those interested in acquiring manuscripts and documents pertinent to cities and other subjects that may enhance the understanding of the civilizational history of prominent urban centers during a designated historical period.

This study discusses the economic disputes that broke out between the US, France, and Britain from 1793 to 1807. The US declared a complete blockade on its ports for internal and international shipping in 1807. Britain's forceful approach was to get the US to back its war operations; this went against the US's policy of positive neutrality, which sought to guarantee the freedom of movement of its commerce fleet. Though it violated American neutrality and failed to satisfy Britain's ambitions, the program ultimately exerted total control over the American merchant fleet's economic operations. In light of these threats, the United States government responded on December 21, 1807, by enacting a blanket ban.

Al-Balawi's journey called (Taj al-Mafraq in Tahliya Ulema al-Mashreq) in the 8th century of Hijri is one of the important journeys in drawing the living image of Al-Quds in various aspects. The study presents the attributes of al-Balawi on the last traveler to see the extent of their compatibility and differences. The study focuses on Islamic theology of Al-Quds during the Islamic movement .

The regions of Somalia and Eritrea experienced a significant rivalry between Egypt and Israel, which unfolded over a crucial historical period lasting nearly three decades. Efforts to navigate the dynamics of tension and attraction between the two parties have been observed, with a noticeable advantage currently favoring the Israeli side. This shift is attributed to its influence in the region and the backing of significant nations, particularly the United States, as well as various international organizations. The strategies of Egypt and Israel concerning Somalia, particularly in the context of recent tensions with Ethiopia, reveal contrasting approaches. Initially, both countries leaned towards supporting Ethiopia and garnering substantial backing from major powers like the United States against Somalia. After 2001, Israel managed to enter Somalia, claiming to offer humanitarian assistance. Conversely, Egypt advocated for peaceful resolutions and was against foreign intervention in the conflicts between Somalia and Ethiopia.In 1983, Egypt took a neutral position on Eritrea, reiterating its dedication to non-interference in African matters during multiple summits. After Eritrea gained independence in 1991, Egypt acknowledged the new situation and formed bilateral agreements with Ethiopia. Conversely, Israel offered significant assistance to Eritrea, with the goal of developing a strong military to counter potential threats from Ethiopia, Sudan, and Yemen. This assistance encompassed collaborative military training initiatives, arms transactions, and educational scholarships for Eritrean students and faculty.

Moroccan women played a pioneering role in the political field in the Kingdom of Morocco. They rejected French colonial policy towards Morocco after the Protectorate Treaty was imposed in 1912. They also opposed the policy of the Berber guerrillas, which was one of the foundations of French colonialism in Morocco. It had a key role in organizing the national resistance, gaining boundless support, and forming cultural alliances with males. In addition to its contribution to trade union work and raising its voice in the necessity of establishing national parties in Morocco, which took it upon themselves to fight French colonialism until the country's independence was achieved in 1956. After that, it began to show its activities in the executive and legislative authorities, in addition to its opposition to many government policies that were leading to

Mustafa Jawad, a scholar, was an accomplished calligrapher, one of many artistic and creative pursuits within Islamic civilization. Writing, researching, and studying this art form for the purpose of laying fresh scientific groundwork for it occupied a large portion of his scientific and practical life. Among academics of his day and his contemporaries, he stood out for his distinctive civilizational logic in this field.

The study explores the methods employed by Muslim historians in interpreting and analyzing historical events. It focuses on understanding the factors that influenced their methodologies, such as religion, culture, society, and politics, and their role in shaping historians' perspectives on events.The study highlights the role of Islamic faith in guiding historians' interpretation of events, as they relied on Quranic texts and the Hadith to frame occurrences and link them to concepts such as divine justice, predestination, and moral order. It also underscores how the political and social contexts of the historians influenced their interpretations and contributed to the diversity of narratives.
The research presents selected models from the works of prominent Muslim historians, such as Al-Tabari, Ibn Khaldun, and Al-Masudi, showcasing the various approaches they used to interpret historical phenomena. These include reliance on Quranic narratives, rational analysis, and cultural and social heritage. The study also examines the significance of their historical interpretations in providing comprehensive perspectives that combine facts with moral and philosophical dimensions.
The study aims to highlight the contributions of Muslim historians to the development of historiography, demonstrating how their analytical insights advanced a deeper understanding of history as a discipline rooted in interpretation and analysis.

The culture of Iraq is one of the oldest cultures in the world historically. It is the place that was called ancient Mesopotamia and the birthplace of ancient civilizations, which left a clear impact on world civilizations in the invention of cuneiform writing, city planning, and the development of the science of law in the ancient world.
Iraq has a very rich heritage and is known for its abundance of intellectuals throughout history in various specializations.
Unlike many countries in the Arab world, Iraq embraces and celebrates the achievements of its past in the Babylonian, Assyrian, Sumerian and Akkadian eras, where the discovered antiquities confirm an ancient civilization that prevailed and then disappeared in Mesopotamia. Here is an attempt to highlight the pioneering and civilizational role of Mesopotamia through the culture of Mesopotamia and how it affected civilizations and the world as a whole.

Thabit ibn Qurra is considered one of the most important scholars in the third century AH, he is considered the main pillar of the prosperity witnessed in the fourth and fifth centuries AH. He excelled in all fields, especially scientific ones, and was truly the pride of his time. Therefore, the status and admiration he received from the Abbasid caliphs did not come out of nowhere, but rather due to the enormous amount of knowledge he had in his bag, which gradually brought him closer until he became a regular in their councils and the personal physician of a number of their caliphs. Thabit did not only enrich us with science, but he also enriched us with a family that had a long history in science, the most important of whom was Sinan ibn Thabit, whose fame and status spread, as well as Thabit ibn Sinan ibn Thabit and other scholars who had great imprints in the field of science. Although Thabit ibn Qurra was famous as a doctor in general, his greatest achievements were in the fields of astronomy, engineering, translation, transportation, and many other sciences. .

The Kurdish- majority areas of eastern Turkey witnessed many events during the period (1918, 1920) and political developments that affected the entire economic, social and political life. political organisations emerged in the form of associations such as Taala Kurdish Association, which role was limited at the beginning of its formation in a sense that it did not play a tangible role in political life. The establishment of associations was for the purpose of organising political work and communicating with the Allied countries, their establishment was also an expression of the Kurds’ discontent and resentment of the Federalists ‘policy. At first, their discontent appeared in the form of uprisings in many areas that were under the control of the Unionists, but its limited activity enabled the Kemalists to control some of its members and restrict Its activity.

The period of the Abbasid Caliphate is considered one of the most significant eras in the history of the Arab Islamic state, during which its borders extended both eastward and westward. This era witnessed remarkable advancements in all aspects of life, especially in the judicial system of the state. Notably, many members of society who were known for the commendable qualities emphasized by the noble Islamic faith assumed this position. Among the foremost of these groups were the Ansar, whose virtuous biographies have been recorded in numerous historical sources, highlighting their support of the Prophet Muhammad in establishing state institutions. They participated in various fields of the state, whether political or military. These activities continued from the time of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, through the Umayyad period, and into the Abbasid era. The sons of the Ansar played a significant role in the judicial system during the Abbasid period, a system that is regarded as a fundamental pillar in the establishment and sustainability of the state. Our research focuses on two main areas: the first is a linguistic and terminological definition of the judiciary, the Abbasid eras, and the Ansar (); the second addresses the role of the Ansar individuals who assumed the judicial position during the Abbasid era.

A considerable number of individuals embodying the Monk Personalities graduated from Benedict Monkery, playing significant roles in various trends of that period. The matter of Monkery in the west had strayed from its intended course; however, through the influence of Christian Monkery, guided by the Monks, this deviation was rectified, leading to a newfound political wisdom and insight that illuminated the path for the Crusades Wars.
The Benedict Laws in the west seem to have been influenced by the systems of the former eastern monks, even though they were distinguished by their social engagement and discipline. It has demonstrated its compatibility with Western life, and the most renowned reformers in Christianity were significantly influenced by the monastic system established by Monk Benedict, including figures such as Al-Baba Ghreghoryus (540-604 AD) and the monk Bonifas. ( 675-754 AD).

The paper focusses on "Lebanese migration in the late Ottoman era until the end of World War I" and examines the phenomena of Lebanese migration, which increased significantly during this time. The primary causes for migration were several, including harsh economic circumstances caused by the loss of agriculture and industry, as well as political upheaval that followed the Ottoman state's decline. The Mount Lebanon area has seen escalating issues as a result of government corruption, an excessive tax system, and sectarian conflicts amongst religious groups. These crises coincided with a significant economic downturn, as agriculture and industry were badly impacted, leaving many people without enough work possibilities and living standards. The sectarian element was important in the forcible relocation of Lebanese sects, as were the events of World War I, which had a significant influence on Lebanese migration overseas.
Lebanese migrants travelled to several countries, including the Americas, Africa, and Europe. Expatriates helped the Lebanese economy by sending remittances, and they were also involved in building Lebanese communities overseas, preserving their cultural identity. Despite the difficulties they had in their host nations, many were able to thrive and build significant enterprises. The study indicates that the exodus has far-reaching consequences for Lebanese society, both economically and socially.

The role of the individual has gained increasing importance in the development of historical events. The individual, in his many forms: statesman, cleric, economist, or thinker, has been the focus of historical development throughout the path of humanity from the beginning of recorded history until the present time.
It is known historically that personalities who occupied their rightful place in the development of human societies have received the attention of historical academic institutions in Iraq.
This was done in a number of university dissertations and dissertations. Within this direction, interest came in studying an unknown Iraqi personality who had a clear impact, in varying proportions, on the political, social and intellectual events in Iraq, especially during the royal era. His works enriched the Iraqi Historical Library. This is the personality of Abd al-Ahad Suleiman Ghazaleh ( 1853-1929), so I decided to research him and highlight his cultural and political role in Iraq.
A study of his biography and activities indicates that he was an effective personality due to the services he provided to his country, and the books he completed that provided important and valuable information, in addition to his political and social views. I decided to divide the research into several axes: the first talks

The year 1990 witnessed a radical change in Egyptian and Arab policy as a result of the Arab events that occurred in the same year, as Egypt stood in its foreign policy against Israel and the process of Jewish settlement in the occupied Arab lands from the measures of the Zionist entity of Jewish immigration to Israel that constitute a great danger to the Palestinian cause, and at the same time the Arab-Israeli conflicts appeared and on the other hand the American position appeared which wanted to show its strategic and military strength in the Middle East in the Arab region especially after the second Gulf crisis in the year 1990, so the latter had an impact on the Egyptian position in its foreign policy towards the Soviet Jewish immigration from the same year.

This research deals with the life of the hadith scholar Ibn Nasir al-Din al-Dimashqi, one of the most prominent hadith scholars in the eighth century AH, who lived in an era of great scientific prosperity in the Levant, especially in Damascus, which is the Mamluk era.
Ibn Nasir al-Din was known for his valuable contributions to religious sciences, especially the science of hadith, the Prophet's biography, and biographies of men, through his writings and teaching.
The research included aspects of his life, starting from his upbringing and education, up to his scientific career and position among the scholars of his time. The research also showed the methodology he followed in his study of hadith sciences, his influence in spreading these sciences, and how he contributed to transmitting and enhancing the scientific heritage, which made him a lasting influence on subsequent generations of scholars. The research also shed light on the legacy left by Ibn Nasir al-Din al-Dimashqi, who is still considered an important reference in the study of hadith sciences

Researching the historical roots of agreements concerned with oil affairs has historical, political, economic and social importance. Therefore, delving into the most important agreement that dealt with the monopoly of oil and its prices is a priority that we have set in this research to be a nucleus around which the reasons, events and results that resulted from the signing of the most famous oil agreement concerned with oil, its production, extraction, prices, monopoly and marketing revolve. Perhaps a questioner, interested person or researcher raises a question about how international oil companies obtained those powers that enabled them to implement their terms and programs for a period exceeding 25 years. Therefore, we will try to raise a group of questions to complete our research methodology, at the forefront of which are: Who are the most prominent oil companies that monopolized oil production, price and marketing? What are the political and economic circumstances and influences that enabled those companies to implement their terms literally? Did the governments of those companies intervene in imposing the monopoly policy and imposing prices? What is the position of the governments whose wealth is being exploited? Why did this agreement remain secret and not disclosed by those companies? What are the most important terms and articles that the three oil companies agreed upon? We put these questions and other important aspects as a hypothesis and a problem that we researched so that the conclusion of the work would be focused on addressing that agreement and its importance to the global oil markets in terms of quantities and production if we knew that the leaders and administrations of those companies controlled more than half of the world's oil markets.

Mentioning the Crusades brings back to our memory an image laden with blood and violence that characterized those wars. They were a series of excessively bloody events that characterized the Middle Ages and were associated with barbarism and formal religiosity. This was a natural reflection of the European mentality at that time. There appeared many ideological studies of those wars that were characterized by change for those historians and writers, producing several studies that included many mythical illusions because they saw those wars as a sacred matter. They contributed to supporting papal propaganda that tried to dress those wars in a garb. Religiously, after that, it was a holy war ordered by God. They launched those slogans in the name of religion to cover up the political and colonial ambitions of Europeans, both secular and religious. For them, those wars were holy, in which Europe made enormous human and financial sacrifices. As for us, they were an unjust aggression that lasted for two centuries. They were the longest human wars ever. We are here in the process of reading a comparison of the two most prominent people who witnessed this campaign and recorded it, Ibn al-Imad al-Isfahani and Ambroise, to address the events of that campaign from the political and military perspectives to show one of those hidden aspects in the history of those wars that need someone to shed light on them, knowing that historical writings related to that period in general were diverse, although most of them were characterized by being in the form of encyclopedias that dealt with different events in all fields.

This study explores the significant role of Tawfiq Rushdi Aras in the Turkish national movement that arose in Anatolia during the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk from 1919 to 1923, with a particular focus on his participation in the War of Independence in response to the occupation of Ottoman territories by the Entente Cordiale forces. Furthermore, the research examines Tawfiq Rushdi Aras's political impact within the legislative sphere, particularly through his role in the Grand Turkish National Council. Alongside his pivotal involvement in establishing the Turkish Communist Party in 1920, he was tasked by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk to join the Turkish National Movement's delegation to the Soviet Union, aiming to strengthen and reinforce the political ties between the Grand Turkish National government and the Soviet Union.

The study examines the political and literary persona of Al_Tughrai, who emerged during the Seljuk era in the fifth and sixth centuries AH. He ascended to administrative ranks and positions, ultimately becoming a minister, owing to his distinctive style and intellectual prowess in composition and expression. Alongside his credentials and effective leadership. He earned the confidence of the caliphs and sultans, alongside his commitment to his linguistic heritage. He possessed an Arab essence in both pronunciation and meaning, embodying wisdom and honesty in his knowledge. He was ascetic in the worldly sense, rich in values and ideals. Consequently, he maintained the role of a despot and remained steadfast in that commitment. These inclinations were manifested in certain facets of his poetry. He was a man who did not seek the approval of the esteemed and lauded the leaders and sovereigns of his era. Should he commend the pimp, he acknowledges their audacity; should he commend ministers, he recognizes their policies on various matters; and should he commend sultans, he lauds their sense of justice. He is regarded as exceptional in his time for his contributions to poetry and prose. He was indeed the embodiment of Iraq's essence and the dignity of its horizons.

The research seeks to elucidate the influence of Caliph Omar bin Abdul Aziz in the promotion of justice among his subjects. He is regarded as a renewer of the Prophet\'s legacy and the Rightly Guided Caliphs. His aspiration to attain a proximity to the Divine during his caliphate led him to emphasize adherence to the Book and the Sunnah. His upbringing in the presence of the Messenger of God () provided him with a profound opportunity to absorb the essence of piety and to deeply root his faith. Drawing inspiration from the generosity of the Companions (), he found joy and closeness to the Divine. He recognized justice as a fundamental principle within God\'s dominion and was meticulous in his selection of ministers and aides, who became instrumental in his pursuit of justice and righteousness. Subsequently, Caliph Omar diligently implemented the principle of Shura, ensuring that both material and moral grievances were restored to their rightful owners. The research yielded a significant finding: the Caliph successfully established a secure and stable society characterized by the dominance of justice and virtue. He fostered social welfare for the majority of its constituents, effectively eradicating poverty and ensuring that no individual was left to rely on charitable contributions or zakat.

This study encompassed various dimensions concerning social life and divorce practices among Arabs prior to the advent of Islam. The subjects associated with divorce represent a significant social dimension that encompasses various issues affecting women post-marriage. This exploration begins with an examination of divorce itself, including its definition, the historical context of how men divorced their wives prior to the advent of Islam, and an analysis of the motivations and categories of divorce practiced by Arabs in that era. Regarding the second aspect: it examines the representation of women in accordance with Islamic teachings and the formation of family, as well as how the Islamic faith addresses the status of women post-divorce and ensures their rights as outlined in Islamic doctrine. Notably, some differences have been elucidated in the research.

The Islamic city of Audaghust stands as a significant hub in the trade network connecting the Maghreb with the southern Sahara, particularly the zajid kingdoms. It served as a crucial link and a secure station for the exchange of goods between the northern and southern regions. This is attributable to its significant strategic position, which established it as a connector or conduit between the cities of North Africa. The city of Audaghust is referenced in the works of various scholars and geographers, who have meticulously detailed its significance and highlighted key aspects in their writings. This study delineated multiple dimensions. The initial axis encompasses the identification and elucidation of the city's geographical location, alongside its designation as recorded in the writings of travelers spanning from the second century to the conclusion of the seventh century AH. The second axis will focus on the social dimensions of the city of Audaghust. The third axis will focus on the economic dimension, particularly agriculture, which has assumed significant importance for the inhabitants of this city.

Manuscript verification is a scientific process that aims to produce the handwritten heritage texts correctly and accurately, so that they are as close as possible to the image that their authors created.
The verification aims to present the texts in a reliable manner, while adjusting and documenting them and explaining any ambiguities or possible errors that occurred as a result of copying or distortion over the ages.
The ultimate goal is to preserve the cultural heritage for future generations and ensure that the texts reach them in a clear and sound image.
This study focusses on the qualities of Imam Al-Shafi'i, may God have mercy on him, as presented by Al-Hafiz: Ahmed bin Ali bin Thabit. Al-Baghdadi highlighted the virtues of Imam Al-Shafi’I, detailing his lineage, merits, and his migration from Mecca to Medina. He noted the Imam's dedication to knowledge and his interactions with the scholars of his era, as well as the challenging circumstances he faced during his travels from one region to another. I conducted a scientific investigation of the manuscript, adhering to established methodological principles. The analysis was based on two handwritten copies of the manuscript, which will be described in due course.

The study deals with Michel Zakour's personal life and journalistic role in Lebanon. This is tackled in two sections. Section one reflects on his journalistic role, while the second highlights his political and ministerial role Lebanon until his death. Michel Zakour was born in the Al-shayah area in 1896 in the suburbs south of Beirut. He held Lebanese nationality and received his elementary education in local scientific schools, completing his studies at Al-Hikma School in 1908. He graduated in 1914 and subsequently joined the French Rights Institute. In 1929, he was elected as a deputy from Mount Lebanon and was re-elected in 1934. During this period, he was instrumental in a petition urging the French to uphold the Lebanese constitution .

Romania emerged as a national entity in 1859 AD, following the unification of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (the Old Kingdom). From that point onwards, the foremost objective of politicians and the cultural and national elite was to attain state independence and to create a national state that encompassed all Romanians. Prince Alexandru Ioan has taken the reins of authority in the United Emirates. Cuza, elected in January 1859 AD, undertook significant reforms during his tenure, focusing on political, economic, and social advancements. He prioritized the enhancement of the road infrastructure, the establishment of free compulsory primary education, and the founding of universities in Bucharest. Cuza’s reforms, while intended to modernize the state, inadvertently incited widespread public discontent stemming from the regime's economic mismanagement. The political elite in opposition characterized these reforms as dictatorial, ultimately leading to the regime's overthrow in 1866 AD by a coalition of liberals and conservatives. In the era of Prince Carol I, there was a concerted effort to modernize both the economic and political frameworks. The initial action taken at the onset of his rule was the issuance of a new constitution in 1866 AD, which effectively structured the political landscape of the nation. The monarch demonstrated a keen interest in the advancement of education and culture, and the era of Carol I’s reign marked a significant period of progress. An examination of Romania's economic, social, administrative, political, and cultural dimensions. Throughout his reign, Romania achieved independence in 1877 AD, established a constitutional monarchy, and set the groundwork for the formation of the modern Romanian state in 1881 AD.

Among the many challenges we have when researching the administrative structures of the Saffarid Emirate in Sijistan is the fact that we lack sufficient knowledge regarding administrative functions in general. Since most aspects of this emirate's administrative institutions and systems have not been thoroughly and accurately studied, it is challenging to give a complete picture of these functions, some of which are only mentioned by name or brief information from distant times and places, even though their existence is required by the circumstances.
As a result, we discover that this emirate's administrative structures are cloaked in obscurity. The main characteristic of these administrative structures, nevertheless, is the retention of a component of the ancient Sassanian systems, which the Muslim Arabs adapted to fit their role as these nations' conquering powers. It is not surprising that different administrative systems are created and others are abolished based on the needs and political circumstances of this emirate, even though the princes of this emirate have consistently tried to modify this administrative apparatus to make it appropriate for the new circumstances in this emirate.
Our knowledge of the Sassanian administrative structure that existed prior to the Islamic conquest of this area is also hazy because the Sassanids did not leave behind written records about their administrative practices, which further complicates our ability to envision the administrative conditions in the Saffarid Emirate in Sijistan. Furthermore, the variety and multiplicity of administrative systems resulted from their use of the inherited decentralization system.

The analysis examines the endeavors of the United States and Romania in fostering economic and cultural ties between the two nations during the period of 1969 to 1972. The year 1969 was selected as it marks the occasion of Richard Nixon's visit to Romania, recognized as the inaugural visit of a sitting American president to the country. The visit significantly influenced the endeavors of both nations to enhance their economic and cultural ties.