Hammurabi journal for studies

Abstract
Non-formal institutions cannot be separated from the broader political landscape, as they play a significant role in shaping the foundations of formal institutions, which emerge from the ideologies of political parties and civil society institutions. Turkey has a long history of political party formation and a high number of political parties. The establishment of political parties in Turkey dates back to the rule of İsmet İnönü, following his efforts to join the United Nations Charter. Subsequently, Adnan Menderes marked the beginning of a new era of political pluralism after the single-party rule established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, under the dominance of the Republican People's Party. Over time, numerous parties emerged, including right-wing and left-wing parties advocating for change, as well as Islamic and secular parties striving to uphold the secularist experience.

Abstract:
The construction of security represents an internationally complex framework with multifunctional and multidimensional implications that indicate the stability of the international unit. It aims to enhance its interactive development towards progress within the structure of the international system or to maintain its global status without regressing to a lower position. Therefore, security is a vision of an international nature with a nationally oriented application, which constitutes the core dilemma addressed in this research.

Abstract
This study examines the Arab-Israeli conflict, which lies at the core of the Palestinian issue—the foremost pan-Arab national cause that has long occupied a central position in the priorities and policies of Arab states and joint Arab action. The study explores the transformation in the nature of the conflict, the key actors involved, and its major historical milestones, which have led to a reality markedly different from the traditional stance on the issue. Once characterized by outright rejection and confrontation, the conflict has evolved into phases of rapprochement and cooperation. This shift has altered the regional balance of power in favor of Israel, granting it greater freedom to implement policies that serve its interests without consideration for Palestinian and broader Arab concerns.

Abstract
This study explores the American Christian fundamentalist perspective on identity, particularly their view of who qualifies as \"American.\" According to their perception, true American identity is exclusively reserved for Christian fundamentalists. They advocate for the restoration of America\'s Christian identity, asserting that the nation was founded by devout believers to be a Christian nation. Consequently, they emphasize the need to revive America’s fundamentalist heritage by rejecting the secular elite, who oppose fundamentalist thought, and by reaffirming the pivotal role of Christian fundamentalists in the nation’s founding. Moreover, they regard themselves as the true Americans, as they adhere to the Christian principles upon which the United States was originally established.

This study examines Myanmar’s foreign policy towards international powers (selected models). Myanmar is the largest country in the Indochina Peninsula and the second-largest member state of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) after Indonesia. It gained independence on January 4, 1948. Due to its unique geopolitical position, Myanmar plays a crucial role in the maritime geopolitics of the Indian Ocean, as it is situated between two economic giants—India and China. Consequently, it has become one of the most significant economic and political partners for both China and India, while also serving as an arena for competition among leading global powers. In an effort to maintain as much independence in its foreign policy as possible, Myanmar seeks to expand its economic and military-technical cooperation with Russia. By leveraging political and economic support from these three powers, Myanmar aims to secure its national security and mitigate the impact of international political pressures and economic sanctions.

The significant transformation in the international environment has necessitated the reformulation of a new vision for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to effectively address evolving global events. It has also required the development of modern mechanisms and strategies to counter Russian threats, Chinese challenges, and other security concerns facing the alliance. As a result, the need for a new strategic concept emerged, leading to the introduction of NATO’s 2022 Strategic Concept. One of the key priorities of this concept is to strengthen partnerships with nations that share the alliance’s values and to collaborate with partners to address security challenges and threats.

Following the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the United States introduced a series of principles and frameworks aimed at shaping the emerging global order. This new model centered on promoting democracy, human rights, and openness to the free world, while establishing dominance over strategically critical regions such as the Middle East and the Arabian Gulf. The objective was to construct a regional framework in the Middle East that would enhance Israel’s influence while marginalizing the Arab role and depleting the sources of power in Arab states by dismantling several of them, imposing specific policies on their governments and regimes, and enforcing sanctions and blockades to neutralize and contain them.
American hegemony in the Middle East has remained a dominant force in the region for decades, shaping the political, economic, and social orientations of countries across the region. The United States has reinforced its influence through various means, including military intervention, economic aid, and diplomatic pressure.
However, shifts in the global balance of power and the emergence of rising powers such as China, Russia, and the European Union have led to diverse reactions to U.S. hegemony in the Middle East. These responses reflect the region’s critical importance within the broader landscape of ongoing international conflicts and transformations.

Historical evidence has shown that the structure of the international system and its power hierarchy are dynamic, creating a competitive international environment based on the balance of power. Since the metric of power is not fixed, its connection to the amount of power possessed by states has led them to adopt strategies that focus on specific powers, either to enhance a power differential or to close the gap in other options, thereby enabling competition with other states. This creates a driving force for major powers to adopt strategies aimed at modifying the polarity of the international system. This has resulted in a convergence of goals and harmony in policies between China and Russia, particularly regarding international issues.

After the end of the Cold War, the world witnessed the rise of great powers on the regional and international scene, including Brazil, which possessed a set of capabilities and material capabilities that enabled it to contribute and play an effective role in formulating the rules of international interactions and play an important role at the international level. Therefore, it must be emphasized that it is one of the rising powers and important economies. It has achieved significant growth and can assume an important economic position that allows it to work with countries around the world to change the equations of the international system. The soft power policies of the BRICS countries or other affiliated groupings are based on a set of values, including achieving security, peace and development, the principles of justice and international solidarity, achieving economic success, and the principles of international and regional dialogue and debate. Alliances built on a common vision for reforming the international system, aiming to enhance its role and importance through mediation in resolving global crises and problems.

Islam strictly prohibits harming others in any form and warns against any behavior that may lead to causing harm. To prevent injustice and oppression، Islamic law has established a balanced framework of justice and equality. It has provided legal texts that limit harm، caution against it، and encourage proactive measures to reject and prevent it as much as possible. Since human beings possess profound spiritual and moral dimensions and are susceptible to harm، Islamic rulings have been established to protect individuals in all these aspects and to prevent them from becoming a source of harm to others as well.

This study aims to shed light on the Malaysian political crisis, which saw the overthrow of an authoritarian regime that had persisted for decades until the 2018 elections. The research explores the political struggle between competing factions and focuses on the emerging democratic transition in Malaysia. Accordingly, the study is divided into three sections. The first examines the 2018 elections, during which the dominant party collapsed and the opposition rose to power. The second discusses the resignation of Mahathir Mohamad, the ensuing political turmoil, and the challenges of democratic transition. The final section addresses the social, economic, and health crises that emerged during this period.