Magazine of historical studies and archaeology

The study aims to highlight the rule of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in Iraq and the severe political purges against the Fayli Kurds, who faced systematic persecution due to their ethnic and religious affiliations. The campaign of purges began in the 1970s, accusing Fayli Kurds of spying for Iran during periods of Iraq-Iran tensions. Thousands of Fayli Kurdish families were forcibly displaced from their homes, their properties confiscated, and their Iraqi citizenship revoked. These violations extended beyond displacement to include arbitrary arrests and mass executions. Many Fayli Kurdish youths disappeared forcibly, their fate remaining unknown to this day. This campaign was part of a broader strategy by the Ba'athist regime aimed at altering the demographic composition of border areas and ensuring full control by the central government
The Ba'ath regime continued its persecution of Fayli Kurds throughout its rule, exacerbated during the Iraq-Iran War 1980-1988 The regime accused Fayli Kurds of loyalty to Iran due to their Shiite affiliation, considering them an internal threat to state security. Authorities conducted mass arrests of Fayli Kurds, subjecting detainees to torture and mistreatment in prisons, often issuing death sentences without fair trials
Additionally, the regime sought to distort the cultural identity of Fayli Kurds by banning the use of the Kurdish language and prohibiting them from practicing their traditions and cultures. Village and city names inhabited by Fayli Kurds were changed to Arabic names in an attempt to erase their identity. Women and children also faced similar levels of persecution, with many losing family members overnight without any information about their fate.
The Ba'ath regime's rule ended with the fall of the system in 2003, revealing the magnitude of the tragedy experienced by Fayli Kurds. Mass graves containing the remains of many victims of executions were discovered, and documents confirming the crimes committed against them were unearthed. Despite political changes in Iraq after the regime's fall, Fayli Kurds continue to suffer from the consequences of that painful era, striving to regain their rights, properties, and citizenship unjustly taken from them

The study that we discussed in our study (the struggle for governance between the princes of the East, Sajistan, for example) explains the political situation of the monarchy that lived in the cities of the Islamic East, and how the conflicts were for the control of the areas of influence, especially the states that were in conflict with each other, and the city of Sajistan is good. Examples of this conflict are conflicts at the level of the internal forces of the city and conflicts with the external forces, despite the commonalities between them such as faith and sex. And literally, because their goal is to reach the ruling and preserve it, and stay as long as possible.

William Du Bois, one of the most prominent black thinkers and activists in the United States of America, joined the Council on African Affairs in 1949. This council served as a platform through which Du Bois succeeded in delivering messages of peace to the countries concerned in the conflict that broke out between the two socialist camps led by the Union. During his time in this council, Du Bois participated in a number of international conferences in order to bring the views of the two conflicting powers closer together. As a result of his active activity, Du Bois was accused of working for the benefit of the Soviet Union because he held socialist principles. In the end, he was acquitted of The accusations made against him without any concrete evidence of that charge.

Coins are important documents minted by the state (i.e., the caliphate), and they cannot be contested or doubted. Through them, we can often learn about various aspects of the state, including its economic, political, and religious characteristics, among others. They bear slogans, symbols, and inscriptions that were engraved for significant purposes related to the state. Islamic coins are considered a document and a source of history and civilization, as they are one of the emblems of the sultan or caliph upon assuming the caliphate. Scholarly studies on these small pieces of currency began around the end of the 19th century and have since attracted the attention of researchers and scholars of Islamic states due to the inscriptions on them, such as names, titles, honorifics, cities, and other information. No researcher studying a particular state can ignore them, as they shed light on many important aspects of that state.
Their importance grew because they played a significant role in Islamic transactions, such as the payment of alms (zakat), land tax (kharaj), and dowries. The study of coins also became essential for researchers because they provide evidence of the ruler’s faith and religious sect. Some states made sure to include symbols reflecting their belief system on their coins, and there are many examples of this.

The military establishment in Mesopotamia paid great attention to the army, mobilization, nutrition, clothing and weapons, in addition to the strict laws issued to protect the soldier and preserve his rights in the event of his presence or absence. Among the formations of this establishment were leading military campaigns and developing the necessary plans to implement them, preparing equipment and dividing jobs between commanders and soldiers to achieve victory. It was the duty of the king to follow up on the conduct of military campaigns or his representative in that.

The Ugandan-Tanzanian conflict was not a sudden eruption that occurred when Ugandan forces invaded northern Tanzania in October 1978. Rather, the conflict between the two countries began after Idi Amin came to power in 1971. It subsequently evolved into a personal conflict between the Ugandan and Tanzanian presidents, rather than an ideological or strategic struggle. Ultimately, it led to a Tanzanian invasion of Ugandan territory in cooperation with Ugandan opposition forces, resulting in the overthrow of Idi Amin's regime in April 1979. This opened the door to a new phase of internal power struggle in Uganda that continued until 1986.

The beginnings of Arab nationalist thought went back to the second half of the nineteenth century, when the Arab East was dominated by a trend opposed to the Ottoman authority and the Turkish element, and a call for Arab independence from the tyrannical Ottoman authority appeared, and the Arab-Ottoman conflict intensified, by rejecting the racist policy of the Turks. This challenge was accompanied by the European invasion, which encouraged Arab intellectuals to adopt a national viewpoint to confront the invading foreign forces under the tyrannical colonial control of the Ottoman authorities, and the state of fragmentation, segregation and underdevelopment experienced by the Arab nation. The Arab national feeling crystallized to confront this conflict, control the Arab destiny, and preserve the Arab identity in light of their fateful unity and interdependence with Islam, the role of the Arabs in Arab-Islamic history, and their interdependence with the Muslims of the whole world.

The Large and diverse numbers of artistic productions that were revealed in Different sitesand throughout the ages ,it has great importance in the lives of the people of Mesopotamia,Among these artistic products,animal statues emerged,Made from a variety of materials ,in different sizes ,and using multiple techniques,each had a specific purpose,the religious,magical,and ritual motives were among the most important of these goals,Animal statues were also made for a magical protecting people from evil spirits and diseases,in addition to protecting religious and religious buildings by placing them in front of entrances, and the fences or bury it in the foundations of the building,animal statues were used in ritual practices ,they were presented as offerings and vows to the gods in various forms,these include ritual or votive vessels,or in the form of figures or amulets,they were placed in temples as substitutes for animals or symbols of a specific,it was also placed inside homes for use in magical or ritual practices or as decoration,they were found in graves as funeral gifts placed with the deceased,in addition to its economic importance,it was used in the manufacture of seals and weights,it also played an important role in their social and political life,parts of the furniture of temples or houses were decorated with complete animal figures or parts thereof,such as a duck,a goose,a lion, or a bull,thrones ,footstools,furniture legs,or the heads of scepters carried by the ruler or king are decorated with it,in addition to its importance in manufacturing parts of musical instruments and children"s toys.

The Fatimids and Ayyubids were interested in the supreme administrative systems in the state, from the authority of the Caliphate, the Ministry, and important administrative systems for the purpose of managing the state in a central manner. The research discussed the nature of the administrative system in Egypt during the Fatimid era (- AH / - AD) and during the Ayyubid era (- AH / - AD) and the most important administrative divisions of the state. The research also shed light on the position of the Caliphate during the Fatimid era, its most important names, and the most important powers of the Caliph. Then we talked about the nature of authority during the Ayyubid era, as the Ayyubids began to rule in the name of the Abbasid Caliph, so the delegation of the Sultanate and the addition of the legitimate character to their rule were issued by the Abbasid Caliphs. The research referred to the position of the ministry, whether it was an executive ministry or a delegation, and the powers of the minister in them. We also mentioned the Fatimids’ interest in appointing competent people to the position of minister, despite the differences in doctrines and religions, most notably the Minister Jaafar bin Al-Furat (d. 420 AH / AD), and the Minister Yaqub bin Killis. (d. 380 AH/990 AD), and many others, which indicate the adoption of a policy of peaceful coexistence among all groups.
Keywords: Caliphate, Ministry, Army, Fleet, Sultan, Judges.

Anyone who follows academic studies and research is fully aware of the importance of the social aspect as the backbone on which studies on other aspects are based. Despite its great importance, it has not received the amount of research and study it deserves. On this basis, we chose our research entitled "Social Conditions of Iraq in the Karbala Newspaper "Al-Nadwa" in 1941" to shed light on an important aspect of contemporary Iraqi history. In the research, which consisted of an introduction, we talked about the conditions on the health, cultural, educational and urban levels, in addition to the religious aspect, which has special importance given that the newspaper "Al-Nadwa" is published from the holy city of Karbala. We ended the research with a conclusion in which we recorded the most important results and conclusions we reached.

The Iraqi royal government decided to bring in a group of educational specialists to develop an educational plan for the Ministry of Education to operate accordingly, those discussions began in the Parliament in 1930, and the Iraqi government's decision was then approved by King Faisal I, the Prime Minister, and the Director of Education.
Paul Monroe, the director of the International Institute at Columbia University's School of Education, was selected to chair the committee, after several correspondences, Monroe agreed to the Iraqi government's request, as a result, the committee visited various areas of Iraq and, after its visit, presented several educational reforms and proposals.
The Monroe Commission report sparked various reactions from intellectuals and politicians, the initial responses came from the then Director General of Knowledge, Sati' al-Husri, criticism was published in the newspapers, this was followed by reactions from Iraqi intellectuals and politicians who were knowledgeable about the state of education at that time, in addition to Arab and international reactions, these intellectuals not only shed light on the Monroe Commission report, but also criticized Director General of Knowledge to get the most out of it.

Education in China supported the pillars of the empire for centuries, as reflected in the assignment of government jobs to students who passed the unified examinations, to be among the competent employees who managed the joints of the empire. Education was, throughout the ages, one of the main drivers of events in China, and in all the eras of the dynasties that ruled China. The developments that occurred during the late last century of the study period also affected the field of education, making China keep pace with the development in education similar to Western education.

Most sources that deal with the cultural aspect of the Achaemenid era agree that the cultures of the countries that the achaemenid Empire included in its influence are older than the culture of the Achaemenid themselves and that they contributed effectively and influentially in laying the foundation of the Achaemenid culture, especially in the field of architecture, the question that comes to mind is whether the Persian arts, especially in the Achaemenid eare,did not have their own entity and were copies of the arts of other empires ?was the Achaemenid artist merely importer for external artistic manifestations without having new innovations in his field of specialization stemming from the spirit of his nationalism ? What was the artist’s goal in embodying the artistic scenes? Is it a reflection of the reality under which he lives , or is his goal primarily to highlight the strength and prestige of the state ,represented by the king and his royal authority solving this problem requires us to focus on studying authentic Persian art,by which we mean the art of the Persian people ,and influenced art (royal art),bywhich we mean the official art of the Achaemenid Empire ,each of which has its own characteristic and goals for which it was established .This iis what we will explain in our research.

This study was devoted to documenting the plan of the shrine of the fourth ambassador of the awaited Imam (peace be upon him) - Ali bin Muhammad Al-Samarri - and what it includes in terms of planning, in addition to the architectural elements of the shrine represented by the entrances, windows, doors, windows, columns, supports, shoulders, arches, niches, and dome, and the types of plant, geometric, and written decorations that decorated the entrances, walls, and the rest of the architectural elements of the shrine, as this documentation, with regard to the archaeological and heritage buildings in general and the shrine of the fourth ambassador in particular, helps to preserve these buildings because they represent a civilized landmark and archaeological value.

This study touched on the functions related to the guardian deities in the underworld, according to the texts of the book (The Two Paths), which is a product of ancient Egyptian thought, which has always occupied its mentality with imagination and visions of the underworld. The texts of this book, which appeared during the Middle Kingdom period (2060-1785 BC) and which were engraved on the walls of tombs, drew a map for us. The Underworld is divided into two paths representing heaven and earth, separated by the Lake of Fire.
The book (The Two Roads) is also a passage in which the ancient Egyptian tried to imagine the underworld and draw a path for the deceased through which he could safely cross towards what he wanted to reach in that world. The texts of this book were a series of extensions of religious ideas that link the texts of (The Pyramids) that preceded it in appearance and between the texts (coffins) that came after it, it is clearer and more detailed in guiding the deceased to overcome the difficulties and dangers that he faces in the underworld.

The Hellenistic era is generally characterised by the spread and progress of science. Trade relations had a major impact on the transfer of the heritage of the ancient Near Eastern civilisation to the lands of the Greeks, from there to the Romans, and then to the later European civilisations Hatra, like any large city, included many communities such as the Greeks, Romans, Parthians, and foreigners from other nationalities, who were subject to its cultural influence and literature.