Magazine of historical studies and archaeology

The research focused on studying a period that witnessed the re-arrangement of international relations until 1939 and important developments that cast a shadow on a critical stage in the history of the contemporary world, as conditions were soon created to enter into
alliances and blocs that led to the division of Europe into two opposing camps. However, fulfilling this prompted the direction of understanding the reasons for the Italian-German rapprochement, and revealing its motives that ultimately led to their understanding and formation of the pact of friendship and alliance known as the Rome-Berlin Axis, which emerged as a result of international developments and the conflict of ideologies between the major countries.
The 1919 Paris Peace Conference resulted in treaties that included decisions that became the subject of great discontent and rejection at the official and popular levels in Germany and Italy. In this regard, the latter two’s adoption of totalitarian regimes contributed to strengthening that rejection, at a time when the ideological conflict with communism and capitalism represented one of the factors that contributed to fanning the flame of international alliances. At that time, German leader Adolf Hitler succeeded in exploiting political developments within the scope of his Nazi aspirations, at a time when Italy sought to establish a military alliance with Germany, which contributed to the complexity of the political scene and raised fears of a possible war in Europe.

Muslims constitute between one and a half percent of American society, and Islam is the third largest religion in the country after Christianity and Judaism. The large ethnic groups among American Muslims are those with Asian and Arab roots, as well as populations of African descent. Muslims succeeded in living among a society with a Protestant majority, after a long struggle and many challenges that accompanied the process of proving their identity and obtaining civil rights, the most important of which is the right to vote. But it can be said that the Muslim community’s awareness of the importance of coming together during the American elections, whether presidential, legislative or even local, as a unified voice came late, as only recent years have witnessed a persistent movement for Muslims to engage in political work to run for public positions that serve their common causes.

Historical formulas are one of the systems of recording history adopted by the ancient Iraqis if they gave each year a name representing an incident that occurred either in the previous year or at the beginning of the current year and they began using this method since the Akkadian era until the end of the ancient Babylonian era with the fall of the city of Babylon in 1595 BC and in the Kashi era the history was the age of the kings and remained followed to the Seleucid era when the year 311 BC was taken as a fixed covenant dated by the exception of a short period in which I use the date of my age The rule of kings and that was in the time of the first Lagash dynasty in the middle of the third millennium BC, while the Assyrians used the Assyrian (Lamo) method in naming each year of the king's reign after a senior state official in a periodic body.
The important sources adopted by researchers in the civilization of Mesopotamia to determine the sequence of rulers, kings and ruling dynasties that ruled in ancient Iraq since the farthest ages of history to the last eras are the legacy of the ancient scribes of proof or lengthy tables with the names of the ruling dynasties and the order of their chronology and important tables of historical incidents that they were dating from and proof of the names of some contemporary dynasties and other texts that were used to adjust the sequence of historical roles and determine the age of kings.

Praise be to God, and prayers and peace be upon the Messenger of God, Muhammad, may God bless him and grant him peace. As for what follows...
There are many opinions of late and contemporary thinkers about the term state and its essence. Islamic thinkers began to be interested in theorizing about the Islamic state after the fall of the Ottoman Caliphate Some of them considered this interest as a result of the Islamists being influenced by the concepts that prevailed in Western culture, including the concept of the state, and this was due to the lack of interest of Muslims before this period in theorizing the issue of the state.
However, most of their concern was power, because the dispute between Muslims was a dispute over power and not the state, and that is why I chose the book (The Concept of the State, by the Moroccan thinker Abdallah Al-Arawi), I decided to read this book and came up with some conclusions, which is a mini-research under the title (The concept of the state according to the thinker Abdullah Al-Arawi, an intellectual study). The author discussed Western studies, theories, and doctrines. Then he went back to explaining the positive state and its nature, and tried to describe and diagnose these theories according to the level of perception and the level of reality. He criticized opinions and embraced other opinions in an attempt to come up with clear conclusions that show the concept and view of each doctrine of the state.
There are those who see the state as a tool and mechanism to serve the individual in his worldly life, and there are those who see it as an aim to refine the individual’s behavior and make him human, and there are those who link it to the economic field, and there are those who see it as a device for suppression and deterrence of the animal nature in man.
In addition to other theoretical viewpoints of the state, the author dealt with all of them with study, analysis, and criticism. The book consists of six chapters, but in my research I focused on the theory of the positive state, the formation of the state, the critical theory of the state, and the traditional state in the Arab world

Flowers are beautiful adornments shaped by the depths of the earth to reveal their appearance, and they are the most beautiful things that nature gives to man. The ancient Egyptians knew many types of flowers that had great importance in their daily lives and were fond of them. The ancient Egyptians paid great attention to raising flowers, paying attention to language, and were creative in using flowers in various magazines. It is known for its suitable climate, such as moderate temperature, in addition to the presence of the Nile River, which is the feature that distinguishes the Egyptian land because of the silt it carries with it, which increases the fertility of the land. For these reasons, the land of Egypt has become agriculturally superior. All of these factors encouraged the cultivation of many types of flowers, the need for which was endless. It had a presence in ancient Egyptian literature. They mentioned it in their poetry, the most important of which was the lotus flower, their queen of flowers and the sacred flower, as it had a distinguished place in poems of love, flirtation, and lamentation.

Al-" Safir " newspaper, in accordance with its leftist orientation and support of the Palestinian resistance movement, expressed a great desire and interest in pursuing American foreign policy, especially that related to the Palestinian issue. " Al-Safir " noted that the first goal of that policy is to empower Israel with all the power factors that allow it to control the region. The Middle East ultimately serves the interests of the United States of America.
Al-Safir drew the attention of the Arab reader to the methods followed by the United States in achieving the greatest amount of political and economic gains, either by concluding unequal agreements with countries in the region, or by igniting strife and disputes between Arab countries." Al-Safir " did not hesitate to publish some important details about the major energy crisis that the United States faced, as well as some reports on the most important American scientific innovations and achievements.

The political aspect has enhanced the deterioration of U.S.-Iranian relations. The year 1979 was a watershed in the course of political events, as it brought about significant developments that had caused conflicts and wars at the level of the Middle East, at the very least. The dialectic of the conflict between the two parties has continued despite the varying levels of that conflict as required by the interests of the two parties. However, the other thing that provoked the United States and made it recalculate was the policy of the new Iranian leadership towards the theory of the security of the Arab Gulf and the threat to American interests in the region. Therefore, this point was the dividing line in the position of the United States of America in its relations with Iran, and this coincided with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, in an attempt to find a passage to the waters of the Arab Gulf.

Most of the countries that were established in the Islamic East were built on the ruins of the countries that came before them, and the same is true with the Khwarezmian state. Aladdin Taksh had a high ability to manage matters, and thus we find him trying to exploit the gaps in which others fell to his advantage, as happened with his brother Sultan Mahmoud. And also in his exploitation of the existing conflict between the Abbasid Caliphate and the Seljuks to his advantage in order to end the Seljuk state.

The study aims at highlighting the role of socialist and conference in Yemeni unity 78/192 m 1990, and the study rose to use the historical approach and the analytical descriptive approach. The study contains six axes and preliminary entrance and conclusion, The boot: the political development of Yemen after the success of the twenty-sixth revolution of 1962, and the first axis: the unitary role of the National Front, ensuring the second axis: the Yemeni Socialist Party and its role, while eating the axis Third: The unitary trends of the Socialist Party of Yemen 1980-1990, and ensured the fourth axis: The development of the unitary political scene in the northern Yemen's partition. The fifth axis: eating the unitary role of political organizations in northern Yemen, and the sixth axis The latter reviewed the unitary role of the Public Public Congress Party, and concluded by researching with a number of results related to the topic and the most prominent cooperation of the socialist party and the Conference in the Declaration of Yemeni Unity on 22 May 1990.

All living species of man belong to one biological species, which is Homo sapiens, which coexisted to survive in every natural environment and also coexisted with other types of environmental, plant and animal ecologies. Despite the sacrifices over long periods of time, man triumphed and multiplied in Italy. It has been shown that The Italian human race dates back to two types of humans. The first entered Italy via Central Europe, and the other type of these breeds entered Italy via Africa as a result of the North African and Eastern European regions being exposed to drought and tectonic movements. This study shows us the importance of the Mediterranean region. Which is an essential element of human movements heading towards Italy, as genetic studies have indicated that the first inhabitants trace their traces back to a very ancient history, and that the patterns of European occupation by population groups were the focus of continuous debate, and that hominids existed for approximately one million years, especially after the arrival of human waves. From Africa, where their presence within a phase known as the “climatic warming phase” and over the continuation of the Paleolithic eras covered the presence of human migrations, which intended to exploit the region by laying the first foundations for stable population settlement, through the archaeological finds and stone tools that were found. The conflicts that successive eras witnessed between Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens, and the explanation of how Neanderthal disappeared and the emergence of an advanced population element all draw the first line of cultural developments in Italy.

Public relations has become one of the important functions in the organization, as it plays an important role in facilitating communication between the organization and its audiences to gain their trust in its work. This function began to be used in the commercial and industrial business environment, and then it was used in other social, religious, and other organizations... when these organizations realized that they could not succeed and reach its goals without the audience.In contrast, the expansion of the fields of civil society organizations in general and human rights organizations in particular in the modern era led to the emergence of the need for the importance of public relations in consolidating the relationship between these organizations and the audiences associated with them, and with the increase in the activity of these organizations. The audiences that deal with them increased accordingly, and it became the responsibility of Public relations has enormous tasks and a huge burden, which is to create some kind of adaptation between these organizations and their media regarding their policies, services, and aspects of their activities, especially since these organizations provide their services for free or depend for their budget on other parties. Many human rights organizations are established by a small number of individuals with ideals to meet the needs of modern society, and rely on public support to achieve its required requirements.

The research boils down to studying masks in Mesopotamia, and although the topic of masks seems strange at first glance, because it is known that the Mesopotamia civilization did not make masks like those that appeared in Africa and Asia , they actually existed since the role of Jemdet Nasr from the proto- literate( 3500-2800 BC) according to the data that we have, and the reason is the lack of knowledge or reference to it is the lack of finding examples of it, this confirms that it was made from perishable actor materials, the few that have reached us are made of stone, some of the statues or part of them , or they were found on wall sculptures or seal scenes , some of the masks were previously worn, the priestess used to perform a role in religious rituals related to the gods, such as epics and myths, and others were worn by the priests to perform as an religious rituals to exorcise evil spirits and heal the sick, others are worn by hunters to help in hunting animals , so the Focus was on the subject of religious rituals and their types , the role of the gods, the meaning of magic , and the reasons for its connection to rituals and its types, when talking about each type of ritual, examples of masks were mentioned , whether it is a mask itself or a statue of a person wearing the mask , or it is represented on sculptures murals or seals impressions ,of a god holding a mask or of people wearing masks.

This research came to shed light on a very important topic, which is the role of the Ottoman school in the development of Arab Cultural Arts (Tughra calligraphy as a model), by addressing Arabic calligraphy in the Ottoman school, the nature of the Tughra calligraphy, and Tughra on Ottoman coins and the stages of its development. The research has concluded a number of results, the most important of which is that the Ottoman school was able to be represented by new elements that create the distinctive features and characteristics of expression. Thanks to the standards set for the geometry of the letters and the virtuous proportions, which achieved accuracy and balance in the measurement of each letter, in addition to the proportionality between the line, point and circle. Arabic calligraphy has also acquired the aesthetic characteristic and has increased in the degrees of its artistic creativity and has become an art that has almost eighty styles and methods. The Ottomans also looked at crafts with reverence and reverence. Tughra is a unique image of the luxurious and extremely beautiful official signature of the Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, and it is also considered the finest achievement of the Ottoman School of art in the development of Arabic calligraphy arts, which is one of the Arab Cultural Arts, and it is one of the decorative images of Arabic calligraphy, which the Ottoman calligrapher sought to perfect.

Writing is one of the industries that the old governments attached great importance and a high position to, as it played a prominent role in political and cultural life, as it became one of the means to spread religion and a pillar of the state’s foundations, building and development, so it took an evolutionary dimension and this development came as a result of the multiplicity and expansion of the state’s interests, and for this reason writing has become an important place as I returned to one of the most honourable positions after the caliphate, and it is considered one of the highest industries, and a means of governance due to the expansion of Islamic state, and this job took the development until I returned to one of the most important and prestigious jobs in the kingdom of Granada, and many people of knowledge, virtue and literature practiced the job of writing.

This paper reviews several theories underlying the ascendancy and fall Italian domination in southern Red Sea during the first half of the twentieth century, by analyzing original sources.
Since 1901 There was an agreement and coordination between Italy and England and France on the division of spheres of influence in the region, Italian interests in that district have been emphasized to secure the political and economic influence of Italy in the Yemen and Eritrea. On 1929 a change occurred in Italy's policy when it separated its relations with Yemen and establishing a relationship of friendship and alliance with Ibn Saud, but he to grant the British companies’ concessions in the western coastal region to use the British as a barrier against the augmented Italian threat in the southern part of the Red Sea. In August 1940, when Italy declared war on Britain succeeded British forces eliminated Italian Empire in East Africa, and the Saudi-Italian relations were frozen under British pressure.
The analysis hopes to provide findings for future understanding to explore the goals and methods of imperialist countries to control the strategic regions the basin Red Sea as The Italian embraced 's principle that the " keys to the Mediterranean are found in the Red Sea", the Role Britain in exclusion of Italy from the territories of western and southern Arabia, the Red Sea to protect British interests, and the role Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to confront the imperialist for insurance the road to two Holy Mosques