Iraqi National Journal of Earth Science

The Jurassic rocks are well exposed in Northern Iraq within the High Folded -Thrust Zone (Western Zagros Fold Thrust Belt). The Sargelu Formation (Middle Jurassic) was studied from a well-exposed section located NW of Suliamni city and about 2 km NW of Ranya town, and close to Hanjera village at the southwestern side of Shawiri anticline. The Sargelu Formation consists of successive beds of sucrose dolomitic limestone, limestone, and argillite limestone beds, interspersed with layers of shale rich in organic matter, as well as thin beds of flint. Some beds of the formation show the presence of large-size ammonite fossils. It is bounded from the bottom by the Sehkanyan Formation, and the contact surface between them appears sharp, represented by the last appearance of the hard dolomite bed belonging to the Sehkanyan Formation, and it is bounded from the top by the Naokelekan Formation and the surface between them appears in the form of a sedimentary conformable surface. The current study relies on determining the age of the formation based on nannofossils, where many species and genera are diagnosed from the collected samples. Three biozones are identified, which are from the oldest to the youngest:

Sixteen Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) / Induced polarization (IP) traverses were conducted and correlated with pumping test data to estimate aquifer parameters from surface measurements. The 2-D inversion results from this method showed three main electrical layers, the first surface layer is characterized by a low-resistivity value <30 ohms.m which might be interpreted to silty and sandy clays or associated with the water-saturated bed range of the depth 0-20m. The second layer has higher ranges between 80 to 120 ohm.m with a depth of less than 20 m. and represented the variation of grain size sediment sand, silt, and gravel boulder, it is partially saturated with water. Several high-resistivity value features appear in the central part of most of the sections, at a depth below 20m.The third layer is considered a moderate-resistivity value >50 ohms.m., which reflects a bed of silty marl bed of middle Tanjero Fn., this layer acts as an impermeable layer.
The calculated results of hydraulic parameters show the low range of transmissivity is between 4.99–10.65 m2/day with the low range of hydraulic conductivity between 0.05 to 0.17 m/day. This is due to the presence of clay in the area, especially from the direction of Southwest toward northeastern part of the study area, whereas the increasing values were related to the presence of sand or gravel. The hydraulic parameters showing little variations with the aquifer parameters due to the restriction of the study area (little variation in lithology), and the low of the wells production.

Climate is one of the most important factors responsible for changing vegetation cover. The climatic changes for each season determine the area and density of vegetation cover. These changes affecting the vegetation cover can be traced and their causes identified using satellite imagery which provides a huge archive of data covering large areas of the earth at different times and the possibility of obtaining and processing them easily using digital processing methods to extract information. The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is the most important indicator adopted in the identification of the pixels, which expresses the nature of changes in vegetation cover and the estimation of its prevalence in any selected season. In the current study, some of the climatic factors affecting the variation of vegetation cover are investigated in the district of Hamdaniya, which administratively belongs to the Nineveh Governorate. The extent of the spread of the vegetation is determined and its area is estimated in the study area as well as the statistical analysis has been accomplished on the climatic elements of the same season by applying some of the multiple regression equations and predictions to determine the nature and the degree of that effect. The results reveal the presence of more than one climatic element that affects the variance of vegetation cover during the rainfall season of the years (2013 - 2019). The actual solar radiation, minimum temperature, relative humidity, and wind are the most important factors affecting the variance in vegetation cover, and they constitute important factors in the nature and degree of influence on the vegetation in the area. A database and thematic maps have been prepared to show the climatic impact on the vegetation cover in the region, which could be an important reference for agricultural research that will be applied to the region in the future.

A detailed petrographic study is achieved of more than 120 thin sections of the carbonate rocks samples for Shiranish Formation (Early-Late Maastrichtian) from three outcrops (Brie Bahar, Ikmalah, and Zoe) at Bekhair anticline, Duhok city, northern Iraq, to identify the impact of the diagenetic processes. The diagenetic process varies in intensity from one microfacies to another at the Shiranish Formation successions, the most important dominant diagenesis processes that are identified in the current study and according to its probable timing sequence are bioturbation, compaction, cementation, dissolution (porosity), micritization, neomorphic (recrystallization), authigenic minerals (pyrite and Glugonite), fractures, and formation of veins.
Among all the observed diagenetic processes, dissolution and recrystallization contributed to porosity and permeability enhancement, on the other hand, cementation, compaction, and micritization have a negative impact on porosity and permeability. All diagenetic indications referred that the environment that has affected the carbonate rocks in the Bekhair anticline was the stagnate Burial Diagenetic environment, as well as the marine phreatic environment, and fresh groundwater phreatic environment.

One of the most common industrial byproducts created by the construction industry is granite waste. Despite having a special chemical composition, granite waste is nevertheless wasted in large quantities without being recycled, which could have a negative influence on the environment. For this reason, the current study offers a workable strategy for recovering and using granite waste as a flux to create a value-added with prominent physical-mechanical properties. The granitic wastes are additives for the purpose of improving natural clay. A batch composition including 20% of granite waste is then created, dried, and fired at various sintering temperatures (1100, 1150, and 1200°C). The chemical and mineralogical components of the raw materials are characterized, whereas the mechanical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics of the fired samples are accomplished. The results of the fired samples' tests at 1200°C revealed that the samples treated with 20% granite waste had enhanced bulk density from 1.86 to 1.96 g/cm3, apparent porosity from 19.23 to 9.22 %, modulus of rapture from 24.26 to 37.14 N/mm2, water absorption from 13.82 to 3.74 %, and chemical resistance from 0.28 to 0.19 % to fulfill EN 295: 2013 criteria. The final research approach demonstrated that there is potential to manufacture environmentally friendly pipes with improved physical-mechanical characteristics and a reduction of harmful environmental hazards.

The importance of the emerged geological characteristics is that they represent the basis of the earth's surface morphology including the karst phenomenon. The problem of the study is manifested by highlighting the effect of the geological properties and their role in terms of the karst formation and whether they play a certain role in developing the chemical erosion played by the linear structures in terms of the emergence and the evolution. The study aims to understand the reflection of the tectonic situation on the formation of the area represented by a set of rocky formations that have great importance in terms of the evolution of karst, particularly the limestone within the Pila Spi Formation as they are characterized by geological weakness in the cracks and partitions and so it is considered the suitable environment for developing the karst aspects. The results of the study highlight the importance of the slope characteristics in terms of the evolution of several karst phenomena in addition to the role of porosity, permeability, and the purity of the lime that are necessary for the development of the land shapes in general and the karst shapes in particular. After analyzing the geological characteristics of Maqlub Mountain, one of the objectives of the study is accomplished, which is their effective role in the evolution of the karst aspects.

A 59 km2 area of soil transect called Al-Band Hills in the eastern part of Misan governorate, south of Iraq was studied. The objective of this study was to understand the behavior of minerals and features of chemical weathering in the transect area soils that developed on fluvial and water-loaded sediments, to fulfill this objective, three soil pedons were selected one of them at the top of Hills and second in the middle and third Pedon in the bottom of the Hill. The results showed that Al-Band Hills located in semi-arid soils in the east of Misan governorate, south of Iraq are characterized by a low and middle intensity of chemical weathering. In an alkaline environment according to its carbonate minerals richness, with a low amount of precipitation, the intensity, and type of silicate minerals weathering is restricted not only by the climate but by the chemical conditions of the soil solution. According to this study's findings, the intensity of weathering of present soil pedons is mostly inherited from the parent rocks which is transferred by the action of water movement from northern areas from Turkey and Iran which belongs to the Quaternary. This study will give clear sights into the geomorphological and geochemical processes that happen in studied soils in semi-arid regions and show the possibility of using weathering features in carbonate and alkali sediments.

The proposed Reduction System of the Rock Mass Strength RSRMS depends on the effects of discontinuities to reduce the strength of rocks. The reduction of rock mass strength happened when the properties of discontinuities are inferior. Most classification systems worldwide used are employing engineering parameters separately. The association of the related parameters and subsequent correlations are the base of the RSRMS, which forms part of the output of the present work. The RSRMS would be applied systematically in multiple stages to arrive at the final view of the site. The system can be applied at any engineering site that has rock mass varied from soil properties to intact mass. The application of RSRMS at the Bekhme Dam Site – NE Iraq has clarified the separation between the zones of different rock mass quality along the Bekhme Gorge, Spillway, and Access tunnels. The evaluations of rock mass matched the common worldwide used rock mass classification systems. The proposed dam site is classified as high quality by RSRMS, which is classified between 4-10 according to Q-System, high according to RMR, and 10-1 according to RMi. At the Spillway Tunnel, three small zones have very low grades at the distance from the SW entrance, two zones have a low grade, and two zones have a medium grade. The best qualities extend to the eight long zones and five zones are having very good quality. At the Access Tunnel, there are two very low-grade zones at the distance from the SW entrance, six low-grade zones, and eight medium-grade zones. Approximately half the length of the tunnel has good and very good quality for five zones and four zones have very good.

Pumping test analysis is one of the most hydrogeological urgent issues encountered by hydrogeologists to discover reliable values for hydrological formation. The current study included the use of pumping test data wells (B7-3) done by a Yugoslavian company (Consortium), where this well penetrated each of the Dammam Formation and Umm Er Radhuma Formation in Ain –Tamer area west of Iraq. The type aquifer of the study area has been considered a confined aquifer regarding the geological situation. The AQTESOLV v4.5 program has been used to simulate the pumping test data of this well, Barker, Cooper-Jacob, Hantush, Murdoch, Papadopulos -Cooper, and Theis-Hantush methods which are used to calculate the hydraulic properties of this aquifer. The results show that each of the Papa-Cooper and Theis-Hantush methods present the same value for transmissivity and storativity of the aquifer, (0.016-0.2) m2/sec respectively. While the Cooper-Jacob method gave values for aquiver properties higher relatively. Also, each of Barker and Murdoch's Methods offered different values for specific storage (0.006-0.06) m-1 respectively. Both methods had different values for Kx as well. The results prove that the pumping test methods have to apply carefully when identifying the hydrogeological parameters of aquifers.

This study aims to investigate the stabilization of representative samples of expansive soil in the Al-Azraq area. This is achieved by mixing soil with different proportions of four types of stabilizers: lime, phosphatic clay, cement kiln dust (CKD), and sandstone. The index properties of the base soil have been investigated through various tests. The chemical and mineralogical compositions of materials have been examined. Compaction, California bearing ratio, and unconfined compression tests are used to assess the engineering properties of the stabilized soil. The results reveal that with 5% lime, 10% phosphatic clay, 7.5% CKD, and 10% sandstone, the plasticity index has been reduced from 60% to 17.2%, 18.47%, 17.52%, and 22.70%, respectively. The maximum dry density has increased by adding 5% lime from 1.19 mg/cm3 to 1.58 mg/cm3. The optimum moisture content decreased from 40.1% to 25.1% with the addition of 5% lime. The California bearing ratio has increased from 9% to 17.5% with the addition of 7.5% CKD. The unconfined compression strength improved significantly with the addition of all stabilizers due to chemical reactions that resulted in the production of binding compounds. The maximum compressive strengths were gained after 21 days of adding 5% lime and 7.5% CKD (1800 and 1720 Mpa, respectively). According to the results, the addition of 5% lime and 7.5% CKD is responsible for forming new product-binding materials that improve the mechanical strength via the pozzolanic reaction. Reusing by-product materials such as CKD and phosphatic clay as non-traditional soil stabilizers could reduce the amount of these materials destined as waste.

Soil contamination with heavy metals is currently one of the greatest environmental threats. The left-bank soil in Mosul City has been studied to assess contamination by heavy metals. Concentrations of Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn are measured for 96 topsoil samples collected randomly from green areas and parks on the left bank of Mosul City and analyzed using the ICP-MS technique to assess the distribution of these heavy metals in the urban environment; then to differentiate natural and anthropogenic contributions, and to identify possible sources of pollution. The average of the earth's crust is dependent on a reference value. Results for the elements (As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn) show higher values than the average crust by (100%, 38.57%, 46.88%, 100%, 20.0%, and 33.33%) respectively. It is noted that the concentration of nickel and lead in the investigated urban soils of the left bank is higher than that of the right bank. Pollution factors (Igeo, EF, and CF) indicate that most of the contamination is attributed to the anthropogenic addition due to war activities and the use of various heavy weapons like bombs, missiles, and ammunition, whose residues contain many heavy metals, as well as pollutants generated from waste burning, vehicle exhausts, electric generators, and liquid waste in urban and industrial areas. To investigate the role of physicochemical parameters and their contribution to changing the distribution of heavy elements in the soil, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and organic matter content (OM) have been measured showing rates of 7.92, 274.48 µs /cm, and 4.57% respectively. Maps of pollutant distribution were constructed for the left bank of Mosul City pointing to the more polluted areas and showing the contribution of possible sources of pollution to the soils.

The Chia Gara Formation at Rania section is located in the Shawli anticline near the village of Hangerah in the Rania district of Sulaymaniyah northern Iraq. This section consists mainly of limestone and shale containing organic matter. Geochemical data of major and trace elements were used to constrain paleoenvironmental conditions including paleoproductivity, redox conditions, hydrodynamic conditions, paleoclimate, paleo-water depth, hydrographic conditions, and hydrothermal activity. The productivity proxies (Ba/Al and P/Ti ratios) indicate lower productivity. Redox proxies for trace elements [V/(V+Ni), V/Cr, Ni/Co, and Mo] suggest anoxic to dysoxic marine conditions. The Zr/Rb values indicate roughly that the hydrodynamic energy increased from the lower to the upper section. Sr/Cu and Rb/Sr ratios, which are paleoclimate proxies, indicate semiarid to arid climatic conditions. The Co*Mn proxies refer to open marine environments associated with upwelling as well as subordinate restricted marine environments. Ni–Zn–Co plot suggests hydrothermal activity during deposition. The Rb/Zr ratio indicates shallowing upward during sedimentation