Iraqi Bulletin of Geology and Mining

The first tectonic map of Iraq of the scale 1: 1000 000 was published in 1984 by the Iraq Geological Survey (GEOSURV) with the assistance of some Czech experts (Buday and Jassim, 1984). The map relied basically on the old principles of the geosynclinal theory which was used to visualize the regional tectonics of Iraq. Later on in the year 1997, GEOSURV has updated the map to introduce the second edition of the tectonic map (Al-Kadhimi et al., 1997). The general framework of the second edition map is based on that of the first edition, but the details were heavily relied on gravity and magnetic geophysical data. The result was a very complicated map in which the regional tectonic zones were subdivided into smaller and smaller subzones that in sometimes contradict with each other or impossible to justify.
In recent years, however, a new tectonic map that kept pace with the present day tectonic aspects and perspective of the area and the surrounding region was in high demand by many geological institutes, universities and exploration companies. Consequently GEOSURV updated and compiled the available new geological data to introduce the third edition of the tectonic map.

Iraq Geological Survey is committed to update the published geological maps, almost periodically and as data are available for updating. Among the updated maps is the Geological Map of Iraq, at scale of 1: 1000 000. It is the 4th edition. The 3rd edition was made in 2000 (Sissakian, 2000), whereas the 1st and 2nd editions were made in 1986 and 1990, respectively (Jassim et al., 1986 and 1990). The new map is attached to this article in A3 size.

The updated hydrogeological information is used to compile the 2nd edition of the Hydrogeological Map of Iraq, at scale of 1: 1000 000. In view of present climatic conditions in Iraq and the region, and the shortage of surface water supply there is a need to search and find other sources of water supply from groundwater resource on regional scale, to assess their quantities and qualities and to determine their suitability for different purposes.
The water of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and their tributaries is mainly utilized in a narrow belt along river valleys, in north Iraq and the Mesopotamia Plain of central and southern Iraq. Accordingly, it is important to assess the quantity and quality of the groundwater within the different Hydrogeological Zones in Iraq. The present hydrogeological data is concerned mainly with the first aquifer within these zones, in order to evaluate the groundwater characteristics hydraulically and chemically as well as its possible usages (Al-Jiburi and Al-Basrawi, 2013).

The Ratgah Formation (Eocene) is found extending towards the Southern Desert of Iraq. This added an important knowledge on the formation's distribution, and basin configuration, which is known to bedominent in western Iraq.
The results of studying the subsurface sections in South Nasirya area, Southern Desert, were an important improvement in the documentation of the presence of the Ratgah Formation. The age designation and facies analysis were determined, by means of planktonic and larger foraminifera.
Two planktonic foraminiferal zones of Late Lutetian – Early Bartonian (Late Middle – Early Late Eocene) stage is found in this part of Ratgh Formation, they are:
1- Hantkenina alabamensis Zone of Early Bartonian (Early Late Eocene).
2- Acarinina bullbrooki Zone of Late Lutetian (Late Middle Eocene).
The Acarnina bullbrooki Zone is divided into two larger foramininferal subzones, they are:
a- Alveolina – Lockhartia Subzone of Late Lutetian.
b- Nummulites bayhariensis Subzone of Late Lutetian.

Two new species of rudist (Dictyoptychus acutidentatus n.sp.; Dictyoptychus mukabaensis n.sp.) have been described from the Maastrichtian Aqra Formation in Iraq. Rudist species and other associated microfossils indicate a Maastichtian age.
The depositional environment of Aqra Formation is determined by the occurrence of the rudist, foraminifera, and microfacies analysis. These gave a clue that the formation was deposited over an elongated discontinuous paleo-ridge that extended from North West towards South East of Iraq, and they indicate a shallow warm marine environment, with high energy at the beginning graded upward to low/ medium energy. The deposition of the formation was characterized by high rate of sedimentation and frequent relative sea level fluctuation.

This study deals with establishing the depositional environments, mineralogy and diagenesis of the Serikagni Formation (lower Miocene) in northwest Iraq. Four sections are described and sampled from Sinjar Mountain region, the only exposure area.
Mineralogical studies revealed that the major mineral is calcite with variable admixture of insoluble residues, which are mostly clay minerals and quartz. Subordinate dolomite and infrequent glauconite and pyrite are also recorded. The main clay minerals are kaolinite, palygorskite and illite with occasional smectite. Petrographic analyses reveal that the Serikagni Formation comprises mostly micrite and skeletal grains, represented by dominantly planktic foraminifera and subordinate benthic foraminifera and bioclasts. The main diagenetic processes that affected the studied rocks are bioturbation, dissolution, neomorphism, cementation (granular), replacement and mechanical compaction.
Field description and laboratory confirmation reveal the existence of three lithogies namely, limestone, marly limestone and limey marl arranged as orbital cycles. Petrographic analysis revealed three microfacies namely, Planktic Foraminiferal Lime Mudstone, Planktic Foraminiferal Wackestone/ Packstone and Biolithoclastic Packstone. Facies analysis indicates that deposition has taken place in a basinal environment with hemipelagic character (deep shelf, toe-of-slope and slope). Turbidites of slumping origin is identified at Sinjar section.

The Slabiat Depression is one of the largest depressions in the Iraqi Southern Desert; its length in the study area is 65 Km, whereas its width ranges (30 – 32.5) Km. Its depth on the surface ranges (0 – 10) m. The depression is filled with Quaternary sediments. All the main valleys drain in the depression, some of them drain farther the south in Saudi Arabia.

The Quaternary sediments that fill the Slabiat Depression include Sabkha sediments (Pleistocene), alluvial fan sediments (Pleistocene – Holocene), and depression fill sediments (Holocene), in addition to sediments of aeolian origin.
There are eight alluvial fans in the study area, with two stages and clear differences between the fans; in the northwestern and southeastern parts of the depression, they differ in their mode of formation, orientation, size and shape. This is attributed to the different sources of the sediments, supplying the fans. Moreover, the valleys in the northwestern pass through karst terrain.
The development of the alluvial fans requires a drop in gradient, in appition many other factors. However, the drop in the gradient of the valleys and the present gradient of the depression is not sufficient to develop the alluvial fans. Therefore, the development of the alluvial fans had occurred under different conditions than those of the present.
However, neotectonic activity also has contributed to the development of the depression, consequently contributed to the development of the alluvial fans, in the depression.

This study is an attempt to conduct morphotectonic analysis for some selected streams in the folded belt, and to deduce their relationship with the geological structures, which control the drainage system. This work was executed using remote sensing and GIS application. The study area lies within Sulaimaniyah Governorate, NE Iraq. Tectonically, the study area is a part of the High Folded Zone, within the Unstable Shelf of the Arabian Plate.
Geologically, the study area is highly complicated, where wide range of geological formations is exposed.
Hundreds of streams, of different sizes and types, and many rivers dissect the studied area, some of which form gorges along their courses, partly of canyon type. Some of these streams and rivers dissect the anticlines, oriented almost perpendicularly to their trends which oriented NW – SE.

The present folds, and even those surrounding the rivers have played big role on the extension of the basins and the sub-basins of the rivers. Locally, they have formed water and wind gaps.
This study demonstrates that the anticlines have developed from several embryonic folds, which have merged during lateral propagation and form extended fold trains. The merging points of the individual fold segments have major effect on the pattern of the regional drainage system. Along all investigated anticlines, direct evidence for lateral propagation in form of distinctive drainage patterns and wind gaps are found. Furthermore, various geomorphologic parameters, describing tectonic activity and basin maturity, are analyzed. The interpretation of the calculated geomorphologic ratios indicates a high tectonic activity and a low maturity of the drainage basins.

The basement magnetic anomalies or anomaly sets of the central and southern Iraq are mostly characterized by clear right lateral distortions zones (coupling stress). If this coupling stress had acted during the closure of the Tythian Sea, significant structures within the sedimentary cover should be developed along these zones.

This study includes application of (VES) Vertical Electrical Sounding for delineation of aquifers in the area located south and southwest of Samawa City, southern Iraq. The VES was carried out by using Schlumberger array in the 16 sounding points distributed along three profiles trending NW – SE, except one point that is not located within any profile. The field curves of apparent resistivity are interpreted by the application of forward calculation and inverse modeling. The results of the inverse modeling are used to construct three geo-electrical sections along electrical profiles, and then converted to geological sections by including the lithological well sections and all available geological and hydro-geological information. The results indicate the presence of three aquifers. The first is the Euphrates aquifer which is located at depths ranging between 1 and 7 m. This aquifer overlaps with the Ghar aquifer in the southeast area, and thus forming one hydro-geological unit. The thickness of this aquifer varies from 8 to 30 m. The second is the Ghar aquifer which appears at depths (1 – 3) m. The thickness of this aquifer ranges between 12 and 40 m. The third is Dammam aquifer, which occurs below the Euphrates aquifer in the north and southeast of the Al-Emaed spring. It also occurs below the Euphrates and the Ghar aquifers in the southeast end of the studied area; its depths ranges between 13 and 43 m, in most locations, but to the south and southwest of Al-Emaed spring, near the ground surface. Its thickness ranges between 100 and 120 m, and it splits into two parts in the area located north and southeast of Al-Emaed spring. The lower part is characterized by increased fractures in comparison with the upper part. The presence of hydraulic connection between these aquifers is observed and this agrees with previous studies.

One of the most important issues facing Iraq is the threat of continued desertification resulting from climatic factors and human activities. Geographic Information System and satellites imageries play major role in developing a global and local operational capability for monitoring desertification in dry lands.
This study intends to prove the capability of Remote Sensing data and Geographic Information System to monitor and study the desertification phenomenon. Part of Karbala Governorate, with an area of 768 Km2 is selected as study area.

Four cloud free Landsat MSS, TM, ETM+, and SPOT5 scenes covering the study area were selected for analysis. Images were acquired for years 1976, 1990, 2001 and 2011. A site area was selected from the whole study area to investigate the possibilities of image classification and extract the indices images for the MSS, TM, ETM, and SPOT respectively. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was used to create a map and extract the vegetation cover in the study area. Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) was used to create a map and define water bodies in the study area. Eolin Mapping Index (EMI) was used to map the areas which are subjected to wind erosion hazard.
In order to identify the changes which took place during the four periods, three methods are used. Firstly; direct detection of change in indices images between different years is analyzed using visual interpretation in addition to statistical analysis. Secondly, differencing change detection analysis is applied to determine and to analyze the land cover changes over the four periods. Thirdly, the supervised classification is used to classify the images and to analyze the land cover changes during the four periods.
The analysis shows that the study area suffers from severe desertification because it has suffered from erosion by wind and sand dunes, urban expansion, and lack of water resources especially in its western parts. The analysis also shows that the desertification decreased in the period between 1976 to 2001, and increased in the period 2001 to 2011 due to the increase in sand dunes to about 8.78 Km2. year–1, the appearance of water logged area problem that increased to about 0.65 Km2. year–1, the increase in urban area to about 0.38 Km2. year–1, in addition to geological factors, and the effect of bad climatic conditions.