JOURNAL OF HISTORICAL & CULTURAL STUDIES an academic magazin

The markets of the Indian subcontinent, one of the most active markets in the Islamic Orient during the Middle Ages, received the attention of the Islamic sultans of Delhi, who realized that the markets represent the economic pole around which the country's recovery and well – being Revolve, because of their vital role in strengthening the financial resources of the state thanks to its commercial activity and the diversity of its goods and crafts, as well as their role in promoting cultural-commercial cross-pollination between India and other countries of the world

Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak was subjected to five assassination attempts during his rule of Egypt from 1981 until 2011, the most serious and famous of which was the attempt to assassinate him in the Ethiopian capital, Addis Ababa. The planning was very precise and organized, and the incident had repercussions on the local and international levels. It led to the deterioration of relations between Sudan and Egypt, as the latter accused that Sudan supported the armed elements that carried out the assassination. The matter was not limited to that, as the developments of the incident led to the intervention of the United Nations. At first, it denounced the incident and considered it an act that disturbs global security and peace. Then, it issued a decree. The UN Security Council issued several resolutions to punish Sudan as a result of its refusal to hand over those accused of the assassination. The countries of the world also denounced the assassination and considered it a cowardly act aimed at destabilizing security and peace in the world.

Sicily is an island known to man since prehistoric times, as shown by the drawings and tools discovered in the caves. This deals with examining the conditions of the general island before the Islamic conquest. The island of Sicily was famous for its distinguished strategic geographical location, which made it an important corridor for trade routes and a crossing point for the transfer of civilization to and from it since ancient times, so it was an area of attraction and polarization for the population.

Events related to Muscat led to a commercial crisis in Basra several times, as Basra was subjected at this time to the rule of the Muntafiq tribes. The commercial community in Basra itself was aware of the advantages of Ottoman rule and therefore maintained its position in support of the Ottomans. Nader Shah’s goal was to extend his influence on the northern and southern coasts of Persia. Nader worked hard to convince the Shah that Isfahan should be evacuated from the presence of Afghans, and this rational opinion entered the implementation stage. When Ashraf noticed the continuous increase in Iran’s power, he decided to attack Khorasan, so as not to waste the opportunity and to find any tricks available, the first battles took place between the two sides. In Damghan, the first victory for Iranian weapons against the foreign enemy meant that the Iranians succeeded after a bout of darkness and deterioration, and the Afghans attacked with great fanfare.

Libya entered into the interests of the United States of America during the Second World War, it contributed directly to its liberation from Italian colonization, and entered into various agreements with it throughout the royal era. Relations began to deteriorate with the Fatih revolution in 1969, as the new leadership stressed the need to get rid of foreign influence, especially military bases, leading to military confrontation in 1981 and 1986, The military escalation between the two countries in the Mediterranean basin was a great concern for the Maltese government, which has economic, social and historical relations with Libya, due to its geographical proximity, so it did its best diplomatically to prevent military confrontations between the two countries, up to security cooperation with Libya.

It is a study of the most prominent Civilized of the eighth century AH, called Tuhfat al-Nadhar fi Gharib al-Amsar and Wonders of Travel, by the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta. It is a recording of a long journey in which he toured the countries of the Maghreb, Egypt, Sudan, the Levant, the Hijaz, Tihama, Najd, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman, Bahrain, Turkestan, Transoxiana, some of India, China, Java, and the lands of the Tatars. And Central Africa. He contacted many kings and princes and used their donations on his travels. His journey lasted 27 years (1325-1352 AD), during the period of Mongol rule in the Levant. The research limited the study of the urban aspects of the schools, mosques and palaces of the cities of Transoxiana and the accompanying details of the cities and the influence of Mongol rule. On it, and knowing the morals and customs of its people, adhering to his path, following his steps from one city to another. Trying to compare with some sources close to the book of the journey and the era of Ibn Battuta

From the beginning, the Ottoman Empire sought to exclude the Mamluks from the rule of Iraq, which continued for nearly eighty years while they monopolized the rule for themselves and tried to distance the Sublime Porte from their control over Baghdad. Some governors were so influenced by the rule that they did not send the necessary funds to Istanbul, and the matter reached the point that some of the governors Not only did they defy the Sultan’s orders, but they even assassinated their envoys. Despite this, the relationship between the Ottoman authorities and the governors of Baghdad remained nominally linked to the Sultan, and from here the Ottoman Empire sent its envoy, Halat Muhammad Saeed Effendi, the politician and diplomat, to the governorate of Baghdad to work on restoring matters to what they were. He had previously imposed on him or excluded its governor, Suleiman Pasha al-Saghir, 1808-1810 AD, who had abandoned the payment of the money he owed and disparaged the governors who had preceded him in ruling Baghdad, and who pledged to pay it when he had been installed as governor of Baghdad, and the case of an effendi carrying a decree from the Sultan without mentioning the name of the person who would pay it. He helps him with it, and from here the Sublime Porte took advantage of the opportunity to restore direct rule over Iraq, or at least to limit the authority of the Mamluks.

This topic deals with the study of the role of the Sasanian religion in the development of society during the period of Sasanian rule in the ancient era. The Sassanid Empire (224-651 ad) was one of the most prominent political and religious forces in the Middle East and greatly influenced the formation of a social, cultural and religious structure in the region or Iran in particular. The research focuses on how Sassanid religious policies affected society, ranging from the promotion of Zoroastrianism as an official religion, to the impact of these policies on the fabric of society, including the interaction between Zoroastrians and other religious minorities. The research also reviews how religious development contributed to the construction of religious and cultural institutions and how we use them in our daily lives and address problems, as well as examines the relationship between religion and power and its impact on political and social stability in that period.
Keywords: Religious development * sasanism *Zoroastrianism *religious policies *religious institutions

The Turkish society Was affected by factors that made it a military society living in the from of comps, and among those factors is their Bedouin life, and their proximity to China, then Islam entered Turkestan to add to them true doctrine and principles, which enabled them to expand their kingdom after their displacement towards Anatolia, after adopting the concept of Islamic jihad, and after the weakness that afflicted the military establishment started to infiltrate Western ideas into the institution.

After the death of Khan Abu Sa`id al-Ilkhani, the Ilkhanid disintegration in Persia into several emirates, including the Emirate of the Muzaffar family. The founder of the emirate came from the Arabian Peninsula, and his name is Mubariz al-Din Muhammad. He was one of the leaders of the Mongol Khan Oljatu, who gave him an exterminatory rule to protect commercial caravans. After that, he expanded his kingdom and took control of Yazd in 1318 AD. Mubariz al-Din Muhammad became independent of his emirate after the death of Khan Abu Sa`id al-Ilykhani in 1335 AD, and its capital was Yazd. After that, he expanded his kingdom and annexed all of Kerman, which was ruled by his in-laws. Later, in 1353 AD, he seized control of Shiraz, after which he was able to kill the last ruler of the Inju dynasty and was able to control Isfahan. After that, it worsened. The relationship between him and his sons, who were able to arrest their father and gouged out his eyes in 1358 AD. Five years later, the founder Mubariz al-Din died, after which his son Shah Shuja took control of the emirate.

The current study tackled the granting system in Islam and the principles the Rashidi Caliphate adopted in recognizing and distributing the grants to Muslims in accordance with the order of equality and distinguishing. But the criteria adopted differed in the Umayyad caliphate era as it considered loyalty and obedience as a basis for the grants given and that had an effect on all the aspects of the political, military and economic life, that were all came together and led to the fall of the Umayyad caliphate.

Islam has provided humanity with a lot to regulate human life and obtain their rights, including the right to freedom. When Islam came, the world was living in various types of tyranny, confiscation of freedoms, and loss of rights, including the right to freedom. Societies in the world, including Arab society before Islam, lived in abhorrent classism. The lowest of these classes is the slave class, the destitute class that lives in tragic conditions. Their ultimate wish was to get rid of slavery and oppression, and to an extent Islam took great care of this wish, made the paths to it easy, and opened the doors to achieving it. The slaves did not seek justice from their masters, and they were not given the opportunity to obtain freedom in the true sense except under Islam. As soon as Islam came, the chains and shackles fell from the hands of the slaves from every direction. Only those who wanted to remain in slavery and were satisfied with it remained in slavery. Therefore, this study came to shed light on the most important reasons for emancipation that Islam legislated, as they were ways of getting rid of the bondage of slavery and transforming them into the space of freedom.

During the period, looking at the sciences that flourished, and the sciences took their place، After Abd al-Rahman al-Nasser was able to eradicate strife and turmoil in the country, the country settled for him and headed towards science and knowledge, so the scientific movement of Andalusia flourished and settled in science and knowledge in medicine and pharmacy, until Andalusia in that era reached a position of exaltation among other societies in the central field. The medical doctor in my era, the medical caliph in my caliph era, al-Hakam al-Mustansir, and Cordoba became one of the great capitals, and the Andalusian doctors appeared and succeeded, the active and prominent role in the development of the science of medicine and treatment in Andalusia and the Islamic state in general.

The area in the north-west of the Arabian Peninsula contributed to the activity and prosperity of business being a vital corridor for major trade, beginning with the first millennium BC. Both for convoys coming from the south of the Arabian Peninsula and heading towards its North. The region was known for its fertile soil, abundant water and many wells, so it prospered economically, including the cities of Dadan, lahyan, Kaydar and Tayma, where these cities played an important role in the material and intellectual cultural production.