Iraqi National Journal of Earth Science

The morphological changes of rivers and lakes continue as a result of several factors, including natural and human. These changes include rivers' pathways, deposition of sediment, erosion, and flooding due to water level fluctuation. It is therefore necessary to understand these changes, which are the basis for the sustainable management of water resources. The Remote Sensing (RS) technique is often regarded as very efficient for monitoring natural events, including the morphological characteristics of river basins. This study has addressed the worldwide morphological changes of rivers and lakes. It has monitored them using modern techniques such as remote sensing techniques and its effectiveness in assessing these changes. Remote sensing technology is an advanced tool brought about a significant shift in the field of studying the morphological changes of rivers and lakes. This technology has provided the capability to collect and analyze data on a large scale, offering precise and up-to-date information about morphological changes not only for aquatic systems but also for landforms and physical alterations. This technology relies on multiple applications for assessing morphological changes, including satellite imaging, LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) techniques, and radar systems. The results show the effectiveness of remote sensing techniques and geographic information systems in analyzing and monitoring the morphological changes of rivers, lakes, and the aquatic environment in general, as these techniques save effort, time, and accuracy compared to traditional methods and fieldwork. The findings of this research indicate that remote sensing technology and geographic information systems are highly effective in monitoring morphological changes in rivers and lakes. These methods provide precise results in a significantly shorter timeframe compared to conventional approaches. Additionally, they offer precise and dependable outcomes capable of encompassing extensive regions and gathering crucial and varied information such as terrain heights, water movement, sediment dispersion, and early identification of geological problems.

This study is based on assessing rock masses exposed on the banks of the Khanas Dam reservoir in the southeastern part of the Sheikhan Anticline in northern Iraq. The rock masses are of the Pila Spi Formation. The study includes field data, laboratory tests, and office work. During the study, seven stations were chosen and distributed on both banks, four stations on the right and three stations on the left, considering that the Pila Spi Formation is the dominant and representative geological formation of the study area, and it represents the foundation of the dam, Shoulders, and banks overlooking the reservoir. The rock masses of the Pila Spi Formation are represented by limestone, chalky limestone, and dolomitic limestone as a result of the diagenetic process. Three classifications are used to assess rock masses: Rock Mass Rating (RMR), Dam Mass Rating (DMRSTA), and Geological Strength Index (GSI). As a result of the classification of rock masses, they range between (50-61) on the right bank, while on the left bank, they range between (53-62). The results of the assessment of the stability of the Dam Mass Rating on the right bank range between (61-66), while on the left bank range between (58-67). The results of the geological strength index values for rock mass on the right bank are between 41-56, while the results on the left bank are between 48-57. The Roclab program was also used, through which the mechanical properties of rock masses, represented by cohesion strength(C) and angle of internal friction(Ø), are determined using the Hoek-Brown failure criterion. Cohesion strength on the right bank range is between (0.362-0.877MPa), while on the left bank, their values range between (0.385-0.869MPa). The angle of internal friction on the right bank ranges between (24.26°-28.15°), while on the left bank, the values range between (25.31°- 28.51°).

The geotechnical soil investigation in Al-Siba District in southern Iraq for a Gas Power Plant Project reveals soft to very soft silty clay soil with varying elastic moduli values across different depths. The soil is divided into six layers, with modulus values ranging from 342.23 m/sec to 548.02 m/sec and 215.43 m/sec to 307.73 m/sec starting from 1.0 to 24.0 m depths, respectively. The Poisson's ratio and Young's modulus values are found to be between 0.21 and 0.325 in BH.3, with the minimum and maximum values being 74.5 and 171.5 MPa. The study has identified zones of weakness at depths of 5-19 meters based on low N-values (Number of blows). The foundation soil demonstrated the ability to withstand double the design load without settlement. Plate load tests and elasticity theory results aligned closely, indicating allowable bearing capacity values between 13 to 25.5 T/m2. A strong correlation is found between subgrade reaction and permanent deformation moduli. Overall, the site's soil characteristics and gas production potential support the recommendation for implementing the Gas Power Plant in Al-Siba District

The Tigris River is an important source of water for domestic use and economic activities in Iraq and the city of Mosul. This use has increased at present with the low rates of its discharge and the increase in untreated wastewater discharged into it. Eight (8) sites were selected for the waters of the Tigris River after the sewage valleys in the city of Mosul, in addition to a comparison site in the Sharekhan area. Samples were collected during the spring season. The results indicated that the average water temperature, total dissolved salts (TDS), pH, turbidity, and total hardness ranged between (18.0–19.1 C◦), (352–442 mg/L), (7.65–7.93), (12–24 NTU), and (355–485 mg/ L), respectively. The turbidity values of the water in the study sites exceeded the standard specifications of the World Health Organization (WHO) for drinking purposes, and the water was hard in all sites. Concentrations of dissolved oxygen in the Tigris River ranged between 2.4 and 3.1 mg/L and exceeded the global concentration limit for drinking water and the lives of most fish species. The concentrations of nitrate, phosphate, chloride, and sulfate ions ranged between (3.1–5.9), (0.9–4.0), (38–61), and (3.1–5.9) mg/L, respectively, while the concentrations of heavy metals copper, zinc, lead, cobalt, and nickel ranged between (nil–0.211), (1.13–1.76), (0.099–0.615), (0.013–0.042), and (0.102–0.361), respectively. Lead concentrations in river water sites exceeded global limits for drinking, irrigation, and watering of poultry, livestock, and fish life, while nickel concentrations at all sites exceeded global limits for drinking water. The results of the Tigris River water class were (poor–very poor) for drinking and watering poultry, based on the Water Quality Index (WQI) classification, and (good–poor) for irrigation, livestock watering, and aquatic life. The Tigris River water at the comparison site in Sherekhan was of better quality for different uses than the other sites due to the effect of the liquid waste discharged into the river

In this study, a morphometric analysis of the Um Al-Shibabit Valley basin has been done. It reflects that Um Al-Shibabit Valley is of the 7th order valley consisting of two sub-basins (northern and southern). The Valleys of two parts of the basin are linked about 6 kilometers from the Tigris River. The areal, shape, discharge, and topographic properties of the basin are determined. The area, perimeter, length, and width of the basin are 295 km², 80 km, 24 km, and 14.5 km, respectively. The shape is intermediate between circular and a rectangular basin. The discharge characteristics reveal a quick access of the downstream floods during heavy rainstorms. The hydro-chemical properties of water in the valley are studied. The chemical analyses reflect a high salinity in the upstream, near Mehha Saltern. The abundant salt in this part of the valley is sodium chloride, while the salinity decreased in the midstream to reach the lowest concentration near Ain Al-Baidha Spring. The concentration returns to increase toward the downstream, where NaCl and CaSO4.2H2O are the main salts; while in Ain Al-Baidha Spring, the main salt is CaSO4.2H2O. The water of the valley is usable for animal drinking, construction, and irrigation of crops, palm, barley, and wheat. Mineralogical and chemical diagnoses reflect that quartz, calcite, feldspar, gypsum, palygorskite, kaolinite, dolomite, and halite are the abundant minerals in the transported sediments in the valley. The optimum location selected according to the hydro-morphometric, hydro-chemical, and mineralogical conclusions is considered a location for the suggested small dam. The location is near the confluence of the two main branches of the valley. The study suggests that the separated high-salinity water at the upstream can be used for salt production and other industrial uses

Sedimentary features, petrography, and microfacies analysis of the Avanah Formation are investigated in the current study. Two exposed outcrops (Sartak-Bamo and Belula) for the Avanah Formation are studied in detail, located in the Zagros High Folded Zone (ZHFZ), and two subsurface sections (K90 and K306) within the Zagros Low Folded Zone (ZLFZ). The Avanah Formation is composed of multi-lithological sequences (limestone, dolomitic limestone, dolostone, and marly limestone). It has been subdivided into five units based on its composition. The Khurmala Formation underlies the Avanah Formation at all the studied sections unconformably. The Pila Spi Formation at the Sartak-Bamo section conformably overlies the Avanah Formation, but the Jaddala Formation conformably overlies the Avanah Formation at the Belula section. The Fatha Formation unconformably overlies the Avanah Formation at both subsurface sections. A variety of large benthic foraminifera species have been identified, such as Nummulite spp.; Orbitolite complanatus (Lamarck); Alveolina spp.; Discocyclina spp. and Assilina spp. In addition, some other small benthic foraminifera, such as Miliolids, Rotalids, a few Mollusca, and Algae with their bioclasts, are identified in the studied sections. Based on detailed microfacies analysis, four main microfacies (Mudstone, Wackestone, Packstone, and Packstone-Grainstone) and eleven submicrofacies are determined. Three facies’ associations are identified, which lead to interpreting that the Avanah Formation was deposited in a semi-lagoon, shoal (bank) to shallow open marine environment of the inner ramp and extending to the middle ramp setting.

Sediment contamination is one of the major challenges the Euphrates River environment faces. The Euphrates River is regarded as the main supply of water for industrial and agricultural purposes for Samawa City in Al Muthanna Province, the southwestern part of Iraq. The sewage pipeline is dumped into the river, which directly affects the water quality and subsequently the vegetation. A magnetic mineralogy study is carried out on sediments to specify the contamination by heavy metals. Magnetic properties are measured in 250 sediment samples; magnetic susceptibility, anhysteretic remanent magnetization, isothermal remanent magnetization, and thermomagnetic analyses are measured. Heavy metal analyses are performed using SEM together with energy-dispersive X-ray and X-ray fluorescence analyses to connect the results with magnetic enhancements. Statistical analyses show that the mean value of magnetic susceptibility is 3361.2 × 10-8 m3kg-1, of anhysteretic remanent magnetization is 628.9 × 10-8 m3kg-1, and thermomagnetic analyses (high and low) clearly show the typical curves of magnetite. The magnetic properties results indicate that the main magnetic phases are single-domain (SD) to multi-domain (MD) state magnetite caused by the surrounding catchment and anthropogenic activities. Results of heavy metal (HM) analysis performed on ten selected samples and then compared with the magnetic results. A correlation between HM and χ shows a positive correlation between magnetic susceptibility and Ca, Cr, Mg, Fe, Pb, and Na concentrations. The results of magnetic mineralogy indicate that the magnetic susceptibility parameter can be used as an indicator for heavy metals

This research aims to utilize GIS techniques to identify the morphometric characteristics of the Wadi Al-Kumel basin in Iraq, encompassing its spatial, morphological, topographical, and drainage characteristics, as well as the drainage patterns of the basin, to establish a digital morphometric information base for the basin. The research is based on the analysis of Landsat 8 (OLI) satellite images, digital elevation models (DEM), and field studies, utilizing ArcGIS Desktop 10.8 to prepare maps for drainage networks, determine waterway ranks, and calculate morphometric parameters. The data of the meteorological stations are relied upon to identify the type of climate of the region. The analytical and quantitative approaches are also relied upon to analyze and measure the morphometric variables, producing a map of the river network and classifying its ranks according to the Strehler method, and then analyzing the natural characteristics affecting the basin, including geological formations, topographic characteristics, climate, soil, and natural vegetation. The Wadi Al-Kumel basin is located in the northern and northeastern parts of Iraq within the undulating and high mountainous region between Nineveh and Dohuk Governorates. The total basin area reaches (926.29) km2 and a length of approximately (70) km. The number of river levels reaches six, varying in streams number and lengths according to their levels. The total number of basin streams reaches 3242 streams. This variation is due to the processes of their formation and origin, in addition to the variation in the environmental characteristics that compose them. There is also a variation in the topographic characteristics of the different parts of the basin due to the difference in the topography of the region

Subsurface cavities and weak zones have a significant influence on the long-term feasibility of infrastructure and buildings; these problems must be considered before beginning construction of buildings and town decisions. Assessing the hazard associated with these cavities requires a greater understanding of the complex behavior of the karst structure, which is best developed in a region that absences indicators on the ground surface. This study investigates the subsurface characteristics in the K3 region using 2D electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) to recognize and describe underground structures. The data acquisition has been conducted manually along four 2D traverses, each 97 m long, using a dipole-dipole array with 20 electrodes spaced at 5 m apart. The data are processed using the RES2DINV software with a robust method to generate a 2D resistivity model. The results show distinct high-resistivity anomalies; these are suggestive of several cavities with a variety of depths from 3 to 15 m below the surface, with a width of 35 m. Also, several subsurface weak zones reveal that they are more severe at depths of 1.25-5 m below the ground surface. These zones associated with subterranean channels, cavities or sinkholes lead to issues with new construction and potential foundation subsidence. The investigation successfully charted the spatial distribution, depth, and approximate size of the detected cavities and weak areas. These findings have crucial importance to the assessment of geotechnical risk and urban planning in the K3 region; the efficacy of 2D ERI in the detection of subsurface structures is demonstrated.

One of the most controversial topics in geology is the K/Pg event, marked by mineralogical and geochemical evidence, as well as environmental catastrophes that led to a massive extinction. At the end of the Mesozoic, the Chicxulub meteorite impact and/or prolonged Deccan eruptions were the causes of the global mineralogical and geochemical anomalies at the K/Pg. The Gali and Qalbaza sections in Iraq represent the K/Pg between the upper Tanjero and lower Kolosh formations. The sandstones of these sections are immature lithic graywacke derived from an undissected arc-recycled orogenic provenance, and they were deposited in an arid to semi-arid paleoclimate. REE suggests that a single melt underwent differentiation to provide the source rocks that weathered and were deposited under oxic-anoxic paleoredox conditions. Quartz and K-feldspar increase and carbonate fragments decrease at 10 cm thick of both gray siltstone (sample G19 of Gali section) and red conglomerate layers (sample Q18 of Qalbaza section). The G19 and Q18 layers exhibit low calcite content and the presence of analcime, smectite, and vermiculite. Positive anomalies for SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, Na2O, K2O, TTEs, Zr, Zn, and Cu, and negative anomalies for CaO, MnO, LOI, Hf, Sr, and Cs are recorded at 10 cm thick G19 and Q18 layers. Elevated levels of Fe/Al, Ni/Al, Cr/Al, and SO2/MnO are also detected at the G19 and Q18 layers. Based on the current evidence, the proposed boundaries of gray siltstone (sample G19) and red conglomerate (sample Q18) layers could represent the K/Pg boundaries, with parts of them perhaps eroded

The study aims to investigate the assessment of groundwater quality and its suitability for agricultural use in the Al-Shirqat area in Salahaldin Governorate. The selected (23) wells are distributed over the study area at two different locations. The first location includes 12 wells and is located within the sedimentary soil unit, while the second site includes 11 wells and is located within the calcareous soil unit. Well water samples are analyzed to measure the positive and negative dissolved ions (Ca, Mg, Na, K, HCO3, Cl, and SO4). The irrigation water quality criteria (SAR, Na% %, ESP, PS, Mg% % and TDS) are calculated, and spatial distribution maps are prepared. The results show that the concentrations of calcium and chloride ions exceed the permissible limits needed for irrigation, while the concentration of sodium ions is within the permissible limits according to FAO standards. The values of EC range between 3-10 dSm-1 and a low exchangeable sodium absorption ratio SAR (less than 4.48) under the S1C4 group

The Dokan Formation (Cenomanian) has been studied within the Azmar anticline in Sulaymaniyah Governorate (about 4 km northeast of the city center). The field description shows that the Dokan Formation is composed mainly of light-gray limestone rocks and lead-gray marly limestone with thin beds of dark-gray shale. The thickness of the Formation in the studied section is 18 m; The lower and upper contacts of the Dokan Formation are conformable with the Balambo Formation and the Gulneri Formation, respectively. The petrographic study of (55) thin sections reveal the following components: planktonic and benthonic foraminifera, calcospheres, some echinoderm bioclasts, and lesser proportions of ostracods. Many diagenetic processes (dissolution, cementation, chemical and physical compaction, etc.) affected the rocks of the Formation. Two main microfacies are distinguished: the first one is lime mudstone microfacies, and the second is lime wackestone microfacies; these, in turn, are divided into six sub-microfacies. Comparing all microfacies with the standard microfacies indicates that the Dokan Formation was deposited in the zone that extended from the outer shelf to the upper slope environments.

The study aimed to identify a new species that was observed for the first time in Iraq, particularly in the southern region of it, where the recent sediments from the late Holocene period are located in the north of Basrah Governorate. Eighteen samples were collected from nine sites north of Basrah Governorate (Qaryat Nasr). The texture of recent sediments for these samples was determined. As well as the diagnosis of the foraminifera species and the relative abundance of the species in the study area. The results of the grain size analysis of the studied sites' sediments showed that the study area contains five types of sediment texture: clay, sandy silt, sandy clay, mud, and sandy mud. Clay sediment is the most common type in the sediments of the region. As for the species of foraminifera that was identified, it was represented by Porosononion martkopi. It is one of the benthic foraminifera species that live in marine environments, so its appearance in the study area was clear environmental evidence of the exposure of southern Iraq to marine influence, which was identified in this study within the sediments of the Late Holocene period. The species Porosononion martkopi also showed high relative abundance where the sediments were of fine grain size, that is, the sedimentary ecosystem was quiet, which in turn provided an environment in which the species thrived.

Forecasting air quality in urban areas is complex due to difficulties in accurately defining emission flux density and the meteorological fields. Combustion gases from human and social activities are the most significant sources of PM 2.5, which is a major air pollutant. Accurate and reliable prediction of PM 2.5 levels is crucial for assessing health risks. Forecasting PM2.5 daily concentration, in general, has been predicted by Random Forest (RF) as a machine learning algorithm. However, the RF performance is highly sensitive to the choice of its hyperparameters, which usually necessitates careful tuning. Consequently, searching for the optimal set of RF hyperparameters constitutes an essential step when attempting to improve model efficiency. Various techniques have come into view for effective hyperparameter tuning of RF. Meta-heuristic optimization methods, with their strong local search abilities, can prevent the training network from getting trapped in local optima and increase the likelihood of identifying the global optimum. This paper proposes employing the Coati Optimization Algorithm (COA), a meta-heuristic approach, to improve RF hyperparameter determination, and, consequently, forecasting PM 2.5 concentrations. Daily PM 2.5 concentrations in Baghdad, Iraq, from 2019 to 2023 are gathered to train RF models and assess the proposed COA performance. The effectiveness of COA is estimated using several metrics. Overall, our proposed COA approach demonstrates superior performance in terms of evaluation criteria compared to other methods in both training and testing daily PM 2.5 concentrations.

Bangladesh has a significantly low and steadily declining land covered in forest compared to the required one-third. Therefore, it is essential to explore the condition of the forest cover in Bangladesh. In recent years, remote sensing techniques have become increasingly popular for assessing the health of forests. The research evaluates the forest health seasonality and spatiotemporal variability. Landsat 7 ETM+, Landsat 8 OLI, and Sentinel-2 images for 2002-2021 and seven vegetation indices are used in the Google Earth Engine platform as it is widely accepted and convenient. The results reveal the time series analysis of vegetation indices; they show a maximum value of 0.8107 for SAVI in Sundarban and a minimum value of 0.0146 for NDVI in the Dinajpur and Hill Tract areas. Also, spatial variability illustrated a maximum value of 0.8107 for SAVI in Sundarban and a minimum value of 0.0146 for NDVI in the Dinajpur area. Moreover, Seasonal patterns are also identified where forest health is best observed during the monsoon season (July - October). Furthermore, the assessment indicates that the south and southeastern portions of the research region, Sundarban, and the Hill Tract area have healthier forest cover than the others. This study could be considered a comprehensive reference for managing and planning forests.

The Draa region, located in the southern part of Morocco, has been faced with a significant increase in desertified surfaces, sand deposits, and a decrease in vegetation cover. The region's ability to develop is hampered by this issue. Through a spatio-temporal study, this project aims to contribute to the comprehension and quantitative assessment of these potential risks. Understanding the dynamics of land use is made possible by the merging of remote sensing and geographic information systems techniques. For this diachronic analysis, two multidate satellite images are employed (Landsat 7 ETM+ 2001 and Landsat 9 OLI 2023). After all the necessary processing of these images, a map of changes is generated by the difference between the two land use maps, which correspond to the two dates of the time interval considered in the project. This allows us to make a diachronic analysis and highlight the change in each component of the studied environment. The obtained results are validated by contrast with other climatic data and by examining the correlations between the remote sensing parameters. The changes are important, especially for the vegetation cover and the migration of sands in the considered area. This is due to the influence of climatic factors. After digitization, it is evident that in comparison to 2001, there was a 43.46% decline in vegetation in 2023. By 2023, living sand will have taken over 20.90% of the area that was covered by vegetation in 2001, posing the biggest threat to the palm oasis.

One aspect of the importance of this research is that it provides comprehensive information and integrated data on geology and hydromorphometry, and focuses in particular on several topics, including how to benefit from seasonal rains and exploit them in the best way to supply the Smaquli Dam reservoir. It is discovered that the basin has hydromorphometric characteristics, including the characteristics of the water network, drainage characteristics, areal characteristics, formal characteristics, topographic characteristics, and drainage pattern. It was also discovered that the water basin is of the sixth order based on the (Strahler) method, the drainage shape, and a rectangular pattern. Based on the Strahler method, it is also a digital elevation model (DEM) with a resolution of (x1414) meters, which is the area of one pixel, is used in the hydromorphometric analysis of the Smaquli Dam reservoir as a basis for geological and hydromorphometric analysis of the reservoir in northeastern Iraq.

The collection of rainwater from rooftops is a sustainable and widely practiced technique in many countries. This approach is designed to capture rainwater from building roofs, enabling its storage and efficient use to address water scarcity in urban areas. In this study, Mosul is chosen as a case study for rooftop rainwater harvesting. An analysis of the city’s climate over 30 years (1984–2014) shows that the average annual precipitation was 352.1 mm. Using advanced software, the total rooftop area in the city is determined to be 63.292 Km², providing an accurate measure of the potential collection area during the rainy season. To estimate the rainwater harvesting potential, the Gould and Nissen formula was applied. The calculation reveals that rooftops in the study area could collect approximately 21.170 × 10⁹ liters of water annually. This corresponds to an estimated 39.42 liters per capita per day, which meets international standards. According to these standards, a daily per capita allocation of 20 liters is considered adequate to meet basic human water needs.

Accurate pore and fracture pressure detection is a major step in successful drilling operations design. The overestimation of these parameters absolutely leads to serious problems throughout and after well drilling. This study is concerned with the characterization and analysis of the most significant diagenetic processes that degrade or improve the reservoir characteristics of the Mauddud Formation in the Badra oil field. The primary goal of this research is to estimate the pore pressure and fracture pressure using well logging data by Techlog 2015 software in order to assess the impact on the estimation of the mud weight window (MWW). The estimated values of formation pressures are then analyzed according to different diagenetic processes affecting the reservoir under study. These important reasons, such as sedimentary texture and original structure, have been analyzed in this study based on the images of both Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and thin section (TS) of many samples taken at different depths of the studied reservoir to cover the vertical changes of the formation. The results show that the value of the safe mud weight window must range from 2.3 to 3.4 ppg, and it becomes narrower and more dangerous when the wells cross the edge of the anticline structure of the reservoir

This study examines the diagenetic processes that affect the Dammam Formation, with a focus on the dolomitization mechanism of limestone rocks within Al-Najaf Governorate, Central Iraq. The Dammam Formation is composed of dolostone, limestone, and dolomitic limestone. The results of XRD analysis show the presence of primarily non-clay minerals (calcite, dolomite, quartz, and feldspar) and clay minerals (palygorskite, montmorillonite, and kaolinite) as secondary minerals. In addition to the dolostone facies, six types of limestone microfacies are identified. Most of them indicate sparse to intense dolomitization. Three facies’ associations are distinguished in the Dammam Formation. Each represents a distinct depositional environment, including shallow restricted, shallow open marine, and shoal environments. Several diagenesis processes have affected the Dammam Formation, with dolomitization being the predominant one. Five major textural patterns of dolomite are distinguished: microcrystalline, planar-euhedral, planar-subhedral to euhedral, planar-porphyrotopic, and planar void-filling. Petrographic investigations, geochemical data, and isotope analysis indicate that the dolomitization of the Dammam Formation has formed in a mixing zone. The paleo-temperature of dolomite in Dammam Formation, measured based on δ¹⁸O, ranges from (42.2-67.1°C). Accordingly, its deposition by mixing meteoric-sea water associated with low temperature and shallow burial conditions becomes more probable. The recorded depletion in δ¹³C value of (-7.97‰). At depth 34 m in BH3, there is a sea-level fall, and exposure of the Dammam Formation was in the late Eocene. The diagenetic history of the limestones can be subdivided into early, middle, and late stages.

Rock failures are a very frequent phenomenon, especially on slopes that cut off roads in mountainous areas. The road leading to the village of Al-Naml, which is located north of Tikrit City, is considered the most important road that connects this village to the neighboring areas and cities. This road sometimes experiences several rock failures that cause difficulty in transportation for people, especially in winter and spring. Therefore, evaluating the stability of rocky slopes on such a road is very necessary. Four slope stations are selected along this road to evaluate the stability of rocky slopes using different techniques. The selection of slope stations is based on the difference in the pattern of discontinuities, the change in the morphology of the slope, and the difference in the type of failures. The failure that occurred in the area is a rockfall, while the expected one is direct toppling. The information taken from the field has been analyzed to determine the degree of stability probability through engineering analysis (Kinematic analysis) using the DIPS-v6.008 program, as well as through the system of giving values to the slope mass rating (SMR) using the SMRTool-V205 program. The engineering analysis (kinematic analysis) showed that wedge sliding is possible at all stations (1,2,3,4), while plane sliding, flexural, toppling, and direct toppling are not likely to occur. The values of SMR for both Discrete-SMR and Continuous-SMR for the slopes of all stations range from (37-1) and (37-5), respectively. It is observed that the values at stations (1,2,3) are within a completely unstable range with a probability of failures of about (0.9), while the value at station (4) is within the unstable range with a probability of failure of about (0.6).

The sequence of the Sargleu Formation (Middle Jurassic) in the Hangira section is located at the northwestern Sulaymaniyah Governorate center in Rania City, northeastern Iraq. The studied successions consist of well-bedded limestone and dolomitic limestone, gray in color, interbedded with thin beds of argillaceous limestone rich in organic matter and intertwined at the top of this succession by thin beds of brown chert rich in ammonite fossils. The aforementioned beds are followed by a succession of thin-bedded limestone, brown color alternating with beds of argillaceous limestone and thin beds of chert. The selected section has been studied in terms of geochemical data of some major and trace elements and the ratio between them for ten samples to elucidate the paleoenvironmental conditions, including paleoproductivity, oxidation and reduction conditions, provenance, hydrodynamic conditions, and detrital input. The productivity record of (P/Al, P/Ti, Ba/Al ratios) indicates high paleoproductivity. Redox proxies for trace elements (V/V+Ni), (U/Th), and (Ni/Co) suggest anoxic to oxygen-deficient conditions. The provenance proxies (Al2O3/TiO2 ratio) indicate that the source rocks of the Sargelu Formation are intermediate igneous rocks. The (Zr/Rb ratio) values indicate a deposition in conditions with low water energy. The high ratios of (Si/Al and Ti/Al) indicate a high clastic flow in the sedimentation basin of the Sargelu Formation due to the presence of detrital quartz or organic silica of organisms with a silicate wall, such as Radiolaria. While the high ratio of (K/Al) is attributed to the role of the wind source of clastic flow in the deposits of the formation, or to the nature of the clay minerals present in the deposits of the Sargelu Formation

Surface heat islands are formed due to the increase in surface temperatures of the earth alongside air temperature within urban areas compared to the surrounding suburban and rural areas. This increase is primarily attributed to the concentration of various human activities and prevalent land uses. This study aims to analyze the spatial and temporal variation of surface temperature across different seasons and the reasons for their concentration in specific locations within the study area. In this study, satellite imagery from Landsat-8 was used. The researcher examined all images from the year 2023 for all seasons to select a set of images that align with the nature of the study to determine the surface temperature of the Earth, providing a true representation of the surface heat island in the city of Mosul using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing. Thermal map results showed that surface heat islands. vary from season to season, with the highest values recorded in the fall, ranging between (42-48.6°C). In contrast, the lowest surface temperatures were recorded in the winter, reaching (13.6-17.1°C). The study also indicated that areas with high population density and desert lands are among the regions that fall within the highest temperature ranges compared to others. Furthermore, it was observed that areas adjacent to the Tigris River and forest areas with dense vegetation cover are less hot, indicating a negative relationship where the surface temperature decreases with an increase in vegetation cover

This study is a representation of the physical and chemical properties of the soils in the Bashiqa district, northeast of Nineveh Governorate. Geographically, the study area is located between latitudes (36°20'47-35°36'54) north and longitudes (43°10'55-43°32'42) east, with an estimated area of about 511.40 km2. (23) samples distributed throughout the study area are collected to conduct field and laboratory tests, including the physical and chemical properties of the soil (color, texture, moisture, density, porosity, pH reaction degree, and salinity EC). The results of the laboratory work have been analyzed, and maps of the variables in the studied sites have been drawn, relying on the obtained data required for map representation. It is found that the soils vary in terms of color, which represents the color changes of the minerals present in the region. It is also shown that the worthiest soil texture in the region is mixed one, and that the quantity and quality of moisture, porosity, and density differ from one region to another according to several variables such as climate (rain, temperature, and wind), the compositional characteristics of each region, and soil formation factors. These variables also affect the degree of interaction between pH and salinity EC.

The irrigation project is considered one of the important projects in Iraq, as the study area is one of the important agricultural areas, which mostly depends on groundwater wells as well as surface water from the Kirkuk Irrigation Project. This study aims to estimate the irrigation project for drinking, agriculture, and irrigation purposes. (46) Water samples were collected in humid and dry seasons in (2023-2024) and analyzed; several methods and classifications were used, including comparison with Canadian standards, Piper hydrochemical facies classification, and classifications for irrigation purposes. The major and minor elements and heavy metals were analyzed. The physical properties were measured, including pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, turbidity, and total hardness. It indicates that the Piper scheme of the hydrochemical facies is calcium-magnesium-bicarbonate. The results show, according to the Canadian water quality index, that the water is poor and unsuitable for human use, and does not have an excellent water condition due to turbidity and calcium concentration, pH, and magnesium values exceeding the permissible limit according to WHO and IQS, so it is considered unsafe for drinking. The results show, according to the classifications of SAR, MH, %Na, SP, salinity hazard, and Wilcox, that the study area is generally suitable and good for irrigation and agricultural uses for most soils and agricultural crops. Analyzed Pearson’s correlations in some of the studied parameters in both seasons reveals that the correlation coefficient is strong and significant positive and negative.

Babil Governorate has witnessed radical changes in land use and land cover (LULC) over the past few decades, driven by rapid population growth and economic development. Despite this, knowledge remains limited regarding land use patterns and the mechanisms of change driven by human activities. Therefore, there is an urgent need to study the transformations of LULC in Babil Governorate to determine the factors influencing these changes, and to predict their future trajectories. This study aims to assess LULC changes during the period 1990-2020 and to predict the expected changes up to 2050 by analyzing land use and land cover data for 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020. By applying the LULC transition matrix and the Markov model, the study could simulate the expected LULC patterns for the study area in the future. The study results show that the region will experience substantial changes in LULC during the period 2030-2050. Urban areas are expected to increase gradually, while bare land is expected to decline significantly. Water bodies are also expected to grow, and vegetation lands are expected to remain relatively stable. These changes reflect the intertwined effects of urban expansion, climate change, water inflows from neighboring countries, and shifts in land use patterns. The results indicate that current LULC trends will continue over the next three decades. This study can provide decision-makers with the necessary tools to develop sustainable land and water management policies.

A sedimentological and nannofossil biostratigraphical study of the Shiranish Formation focuses on an exposed section of the Perat anticline's northern limb. The formation consists of limestone, marl, and marly limestone. It produces a diverse range of calcareous nannofossils, planktic foraminiferal fauna, and some bioclasts. The calcareous nannofossil's stratigraphic distribution allows for the identification of three distinct biozones. These are Uniplanarius trifidus Interval zone (cc22), Tranolithus phacelosus Interval zone (Part) (cc23), and Reinhardites levis Interval zone (cc24), which indicate that the age of the studied Shiranish Formation in Perat anticline is estimated to span from Late Campanian to Early Maastrichtian. On the other hand, the studied section is composed of Globular Planktic Foraminiferal lime wackestone microfacies (Sh1), Keeled Planktic Foraminiferal lime wackestone microfacies (Sh2), Bioclastic lime wackestone microfacies (Sh3), Argillaceous Planktic Foraminiferal lime packstone microfacies (Sh4), and Marl lithofacies (Sh5). The formation's depositional habitats extend from the middle shelf to the upper bathyal based on the distinctive characteristics of these facies

Groundwater resources are receiving a lot of attention, especially in arid and semi-arid areas, as a result of the growing demands for water brought on by urbanization, population growth, and agricultural development. Finding the most significant contributing parameters, such as lineament density, frequency, and junction nodes that reveal the groundwater potential, is the foundation of this investigation. To determine suitable sites for drilling wells, analysis of linear structures is necessary to detect and exploit groundwater sustainably. This study highlights the importance of geospatial systems, including remote sensing and geographic information system technologies, to effectively explore and manage groundwater resources. To identify linear structures in the study area, different image enhancement techniques are applied, such as band composite (BC) and high-pass filtering (HPF). These methods work well, and they are suitable for identifying these structures. The results show that the area contains a large number of short and long fractures, most of which have an orientation from northwest to southeast, and that it is possible to explore groundwater in areas with a high density of areas with intersections in linear structures. The area, where groundwater occurrence is most promising for sustainable use of groundwater, has been identified within the region. Using remote sensing (RS) data and geographic information systems (GIS), a thematic map of each parameter is created. The final groundwater potential zones of the studied region are created by combining these input layers using the GIS Raster Calculate Module. Different groundwater prospective potential zones are depicted on the final output map: very high (49 km2), high (261 km2), and moderate (1041 km2

Rajeb Basin is one of the most important basins in Ajloun Governorate in Jordan. This study aims to assess the effect of climate change on the Rajeb basin using the software of the climate indices (Rclimdex) model for three rainfall stations and three meteorological stations. The future impact of climate change is determined using the statistical downscaling model (SDSM) and the second-generation model for the Earth System (CanESM2) for different emission scenarios. Additionally, the study aims to predict the potential future impact of climate change on the flow of the Rajeb basin at the end of the current century using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. Regarding temperature, the results show a significant trend for 9 out of 16 extreme indices for all stations. The hot days increased by 12 days between 1982-2020, and the hot nights increased by 10 nights for the same period. The cool days decreased by 15 days between 1982-2020, and the cool nights decreased by 17 nights for the same period. The summer days (Tmax>25℃) increased by 26 days, and the tropical nights (Tmin>20℃) increased by 61 nights for the same period. It is predicted that the temperature will increase 2100 by 0.2℃, 0.57℃, and 1.4℃ based on RCP 2.6, 4.5, and 8.5 scenarios, respectively. The precipitation is predicted to decrease 2100 by 10.8%, 23%, and 43%, for the three scenarios, respectively. Regarding the expected streamflow, SWAT forecast results indicate a decrease in streamflow by 8.1%, 38%, and 69.2% between 2018- 2100 based on RCP 2.6, 4.5, and 8.5, respectively. According to the study, local organizations and decision-makers need to take into consideration the effects of climate change on the Rajeb basin. Pumping operations from the basin must be monitored to ensure the sustainability of water resources.


DOI: 10.33899/injes.v26i1.60221, ©Authors, 2026, College of Science, University of Mosul.
This is an open-access article under the CC BY 4.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Since the Mesopotamian civilization, one of the oldest civilizations in history, soil has been used to construct buildings that still stand today. Soil is undoubtedly one of the most widely used building materials in the world. Man built the first houses made of soil. Clay and soil are still used as building materials. However, some soils have problems and need to be treated by adding other materials, such as cement. Soil samples were taken from northern Iraq, specifically the Daquq area, south of Kirkuk. The method of work includes conducting laboratory tests of the raw components of the soil before preparing the samples. Then, preparing the models to make compressed earth blocks under a pressure of 15 MPa with or without the addition of Morcemcolor cement as stabilizing material, which represents colored, water-repellent, and additive mortar with mixed binders, characterized by high fineness and plasticity. Then, geotechnical tests are conducted for (7, 14, 21, and 28) days to determine the extent of its effect on the unconfined compressive strength (UCS). The results show that the use of cement increases the UCS, resulting in very strong and safe brick blocks for construction, according to the safety and security conditions for building materials.