Iraqi Bulletin of Geology and Mining

An assessment of Al-Naft Valley watershed in eastern Iraq was conducted to study
morphometric parameters using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and a Digital
Elevation Model (DEM) was used in hydromorphological analysis to determine the
hydromorphological characteristics of the basin identified to evaluate the possibility of
constructing a dam on Al-Naft Valley. Thirty morphometric parameters were computed within
five main categories. These categories include network properties, drainage properties, areal
properties, morphological properties, and relief properties. It was found that the water basin is
of the sixth order according to the Strahler method, and the basin covers an area of 1443 square
kilometers with a length and width 53.5 – 25.4 kilometer sequentially, and a shape close to
circular, with low (drainage density, stream frequency, relative density, and constant of channel
maintenance) and high sinuosity coefficient and stream intensity, while the basin has a high
relief ratio and low (ruggedness number and relative relief) with moderate (hypsometric
integration, basin texture and hypsometric coefficient). Water velocities are high at the
headwaters and decrease downstream due to lower gradients and the widening of the valley.
Additionally, the tectonic activity of the study basin was identified, it is evident that the area is
tectonically active, along with flow velocity and properties, sediment transport ratio, water loss
ratio, valley retention capacity, and the maturity stage of the drainage basin, it was revealed that
the basin has passed the youthful (inequilibrium) stage and entered the early phase of maturity
(equilibrium) stage.

Lineament analysis is a valuable approach in geological studies and is considered an important
structural indicator used to determine regional tectonic directions and local fracture zones. A
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with a resolution of 12.5 m was used to analyze maps and
automatically extract lineaments based on parameters defined by the researcher using the PCI
Geomatica software for the Gumal Valley basin in northeastern Iraq, which covers an area of
935.12 km². The basin is situated within two tectonic zones: the High Folded Zone in the north
and the Low Folded Zone in the south. This paper aims to identify appropriate methods for
analyzing automatically extracting lineaments and utilizing the results in tectonic and structural
interpretation. Five geospatial analyses were employed for lineament evaluation: length,
number, intersection, orientation, and density analysis. The results showed that the lineaments
in the region exhibit four main directional trends: NE – SW, NW – SE, N – S, and a secondary
E – W trend. The cumulative length and number of lineaments show a predominant NE – SW
orientation, which constitutes 52% of the total lineaments. Most major lineaments and faults
are located in proximity to each other, with very high lineament density values observed in the
High Folded Zone. Morphotectonic analysis of the lineaments revealed good agreement with
the orientation of the main regional and local tectonic stress fields, as well as with the drainage
pattern and tectonic framework.

The Mansuriya gas field, a most important hydrocarbon province in Middle Iraq, contains
significant economic gas reserves, primarily in the Early Miocene Jeribe Formation. This study
examines the reservoir petrophysical properties of the Jeribe Formation in wells Ms-1, Ms-2,
and Ms-3 using a full well log analysis workflow. First, well logs (resistivity, gamma ray,
neutron, and density) were digitized with Digger. Then, Techloge v.21 software was used to
assess and quantify reservoir lithology, porosity, shale volume, and water, gas, and
oil saturations. According to lithological interpretation based on density-neutron crossplots, the
Jeribe Formation is primarily composed of dolomite and limestone, with localized anhydrite
occurrences in gas-bearing intervals. The gamma-ray log analysis displays a low shale volume,
indicating a mostly clean carbonate reservoir. The presence of radioactive minerals within the
formation will probably account for the low gamma-ray response. The Jeribe Formation has
been separated into seven distinct reservoir zones (J1 – J7). The average porosity values for
Ms-1 and Ms-3 were 0.17, which is slightly higher than the 0.15 found for Ms-2. Water
saturation values ranged from 0.18 to 0.29 in Ms-3. Shale volume estimates ranged between
0.09 and 0.14 for all wells. Permeability estimates ranged from 5.21 to 11.06 mD. Hydrocarbon
saturation was still highest in Ms-2 (0.83), followed by Ms-1 (0.82), and lowest in Ms-3 (0.71).
Particularly, the JB2 zone has been determined as a superior reservoir interval within the Jeribe
Formation, with favorable effective porosity, low water saturation, high hydrocarbon
saturation, and a sealing caprock provided by the JB1 anhydrite zone that lies above it.

The accurate identification of chimney structures is crucial for understanding hydrocarbon
migration paths and evaluating seal integrity, thereby reducing drilling risks. Effective
assessment of hydrocarbon seepage relies on knowledge of migration routes and the
source/reservoir. This study uses Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) to predict the occurrence
of gas chimneys, leveraging seismic data processed with the OpendTect platform. Seismic
data conditioning plays a key role in building the machine learning model, involving the
creation of two types of steering cubes: a background steering cube for dip median filtering
(DSMF) and a detailed steering cube for generating meta-attributes. Two labels, Chimney
Yes (1) and Chimney-No (0), are used for training, with a 70%/30% split between training
and testing datasets. The ANN model comprises an input layer with eight nodes, four hidden
layers, and two output nodes. The resulting Chimney Probability Cube (CPC) combines the
seismic meta-attributes optimally using the ANN method. Model evaluation shows excellent
performance, with a Root Mean Square (RMS) error between 0.25 and 0.3 and zero
misclassification. This method provides a reliable approach to identifying gas chimneys,
which is essential for determining migration directions, spill spots, mud volcanoes, gas
seepages, and hydrocarbon origins. The proposed method has significant potential for global
applications in geological hazard assessment, subsurface storage characterization, and
petroleum exploration.

The Peris Mountain (anticline) is long and wide, located in the northern part of the Iraqi
Kurdistan Region (IKR), and the trend of the anticline is almost east–west. The studied rocks
belong to the Bekhme Formation, which consists mainly of limestone. We selected the site for
sampling to be relevant for a quarry, taking into consideration the thickness of the exposed
rocks, no overburden, favorable quarrying faces, hardness of the rocks, bedding nature, good
extension of the outcrops, and a favorable place for the construction of a cement plant.
Moreover, it is far from inhabited areas like villages and other residential sites. We sampled the
rocks of the Bekhme Formation, and a total of 15 samples were collected. The sample collection
was systematically arranged in an interval of (5 to 10) m to represent the studied section. The
samples were checked in a laboratory by XRF to measure the percentage of the required oxides
and other elements, which are used in the assessment process to indicate the suitability of the
studied rocks for cement production. The acquired data showed that the studied rocks can be
used in the cement industry.

An expressive, factual, informative, and concise abstract is required. A single paragraph, no
more than 300 words maximum. The abstract should state briefly the main objectives of the
research or main points of the manuscript, the materials used, the main findings of the work,
and the major conclusions. The abstract should be an objective representation of the article, and
it must not contain results that are not presented and substantiated in the main text, and should
not exaggerate the main conclusions. The abstract should not contain any undefined
abbreviations, but if essential, then they should be defined when first mentioned. References
should not be included. The optimum index factor (OIF) is computed for each combination of
the three bands. The Band combination that has the bigger value in OIF disposes has more
information. The number of band combinations was reduced to four combinations based on
(OIF) calculation; therefore, the best of the combination bands were (753), (543), and (743)
RGB, respectively. We found that the combination consists of near and middle infrared bands
principally (B4, B5, and B7), and B5 and B7 these bands are useful for geological studies. As
aforementioned, we use band combination (RGB:432) too. Pixels of these combinations are
taken to fill the range (0-255) by equalization stretch. Principal component analysis (PCA) has
more advantages in lithological discrimination. This analysis reduced abundance in the data
image; the combination bands involved consist of (PC1, 23RGB), which is variance (98.86%)
of the whole information in all bands, but the high variance value in (7, 5,3RGB) is (73%), (PC5,
2,3RGB) also used to discriminate ultramafic and mafic rocks clearly.

Cavities and voids near the surface in karstic areas present major geotechnical hazards, such as
land subsidence and building cracks, resulting from the dissolution of carbonate rocks by water.
Geophysical techniques, particularly Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI), are crucial for
identifying these subsurface anomalies. During the early stages of excavation at a construction
site in Duhok city, unexpected cavities were encountered, leading to project delays. This study
aimed to assess the cavities' size, depth, and spatial distribution. To achieve this, twelve 2D ERI
profiles using the Wenner-Schlumberger array with a 2-meter electrode spacing were deployed
across the site. Additionally, two profiles were surveyed with a 1-meter electrode spacing due
to space limitations. The surveyed profiles were divided into several sections, each consisting
of three parallel profiles oriented in a specific direction to enhance data accuracy. These
sections corresponded to the four residential towers, providing detailed and precise information
for each area. The inversion results revealed that the subsurface beneath residential towers 2, 3,
4, and 5 primarily comprises dolomitic reefal limestone and weathered limestone. The cavities
encountered varied in size and depth, ranging from 3 to 10 meters. The largest voids were
located near residential towers 3 and 4, with depths of 8 and 5 meters, respectively. These
cavities were confirmed through drilling. The largest cavity, located beneath tower 4,
requires 35 cubic meters of cement for backfilling. Smaller cavities were found at towers 2 and
5, with depths ranging from 3 to 10 meters. This study demonstrates how effective ERI is in
providing essential data for geotechnical planning, particularly in areas with karst features or
unstable subsoil, helping to reduce risks and improve the stability of construction projects.

Fifty-three minor folds within the Ashkawta Rash and Sarkhosh anticlines are studied in detail
using various geometric analysis methods. The study area is located about 20 km southeast of
Sulaimani City in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region, inside the Zagros Imbricate Zone. The minor
folds are located within the Balambo and Kometan formations. The objective of the study is to
investigate the relationships between minor and major folds, focusing on their importance in
analyzing tectonic development and regional structure, and identifying the processes and
mechanisms that contribute to anticline development. Pi (π) diagrams are used to determine the
geometric properties of the fold. Fleuty’s (1964) classification was used to fold tightness and
type, while Ramsey’s (1967) framework provided the classification of fold styles, indicating
the aspect ratio (ℎ) and normalized area (????) for understanding the asymmetry of single-folded
surfaces in minor folds. The analysis of congruous minor folds revealed paleostress orientations
of NE – SW. The anticlockwise rotation of the Arabian Plate compared to the Eurasian Plate
results in an oblique plate collision related to sub-congruous minor folds. The variations in
thickness along fold limbs with varying inclinations of the folded layers indicate a transition in
fold geometries from parallel (sub-class 1B) to similar (class 2) types. According to the single
fold surface categorization, the majority of minor folds have a sinusoidal shape, although a few
exhibit a chevron shape. The analysis of minor fold geometry indicates that the development of
minor folds is mainly influenced by buckling and flattening mechanisms.

This study investigates the environmental and public health impacts of heavy metal pollution
in groundwater originating from Iraq Mass Steel Smelting facilities and adjacent regions in the
Bazian Sub-basin. Twenty groundwater samples were collected and tested for iron (Fe), lead
(Pb), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), nickel (Ni), and cadmium (Cd) via
Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). The results demonstrated that Pb
and Al concentrations surpassed the safety limitations set by the World Health Organization
(WHO), although the levels of other metals remained below permissible limits. To assess the
extent of contamination and associated health risks, several indices were utilized, including the
Heavy Metal Pollution Index (HPI), Metal Index (MI), Hazard Quotient (HQ), Hazard Index
(HI), and Carcinogenic Risk (CR). The results indicated substantial pollution levels, with HPI
varying from 290.31 to 491.58 and MI from 14.69 to 25.57. Lead was the only heavy metal
with an HQ and HI over one, whilst all other metals adhered to acceptable limits. This
underscores the possible health hazards linked to lead pollution. The Total Carcinogenic Risk
(TCR) values exceeded tolerable limits (10-4). Children were identified as being at a higher risk
than adults. Multivariate statistical methods, encompassing cluster analysis (CA) and principal
component analysis (PCA), reveal that groundwater contamination in the research area is
predominantly driven by industrial and agricultural activity. The Iraq Mass Steel Smelting
facility is recognized as a significant source of heavy metal contamination. The outputs have
shown that immediate action is required to address contamination concerns and restore the
water supply for human consumption, agricultural use, and industry.

This investigation reveals new copper mineralization in the Galalla area of the Kurdistan
Region. The mineralization is hosted by basaltic and gabbroic rock and is situated within the
structural framework of the Iraqi Zagros Suture Zone. In this study, the integration of field
geology, petrography, XRD, SEM-EDS, and whole-rock geochemistry was applied to
investigate the nature and evolution of mineralization. The assemblages of minerals, such as
chlorite, albite, epidote, and quartz, show widespread hydrothermal alteration. The ore minerals
include chalcopyrite, chalcocite, covellite, malachite, chrysocolla, and Cu-bearing hematite and
magnetite. These minerals display textures such as replacement, which are spatially associated
with alteration minerals, indicating metal mobilization by hydrothermal fluids. Copper
concentration in the rocks ranges from 33 to 7536 ppm, with the elevation of other elements
such as Fe₂O₃, and enrichment of LREE (e.g., La, Ce, and Nd). The presence of Cu in the P
rich minerals may be related to hydrothermal alteration. The negative Eu anomalies suggest
fluid-driven remobilization. Based on this evidence, mineralization in Galalla resulted from a
multi-stage evolution involving magmatic precursors followed by hydrothermal alteration and
supergene enrichment. The findings will upgrade the potential economic importance of the
Galalla area and warrant further exploration techniques.

The Earth's crustal structure knowledge is essential to the advancement of geological
comprehension and the refinement of seismic hazard analysis. In this study, we investigate the
crustal structure beneath the seismographic stations in the Middle of Iraq using the receiver
function (RF) technique. Seismological records were collected for Karbala (KAR2), Baghdad
(BGD1), and Kut (KUT1) stations for the period January-December 2022. Earthquake event
records of magnitude ≥6 Mw were collected from the European-Mediterranean Seismological
Centre (EMSC). Data pre-processing was carried out for noise removal, instrument
correction, and rotation of waveforms into a suitable coordinate system. Detection of seismic
wave conversions at subsurface discontinuities, i.e., the Conrad and Moho boundaries, was
achieved using the RF method with an iterative time-domain deconvolution algorithm. Crustal
thickness and Vp/Vs ratio were estimated by the H-κ stacking method, and the rftn96
inversion tool sharpened the shear wave velocity (Vs) model. The results indicate strong
crustal differentiation across the study region. On BGD1 (Baghdad station), the crust
comprises 8 km of sedimentary cover with a P-wave velocity (Vp) of 4.1569 km/s, while the
Moho is at a depth of 49 km, where Vp is 7.3554 km/s. The KUT1 station has 6 km of
sediments (Vp = 5.0694 km/s) and a Moho depth of 52 km (Vp = 7.0152 km/s). The KAR2
station has a well-defined structure with 10 km of sediments (Vp = 4.3068 km/s) and a Moho
depth of 40 km (Vp = 7.5624 km/s).

Eighteen subsurface sediment samples were collected for analysis, ten samples from site one
and eight from site two in the southern part of the Al-Huwaizah marsh. The sampling depth was
eight meters at site one and six meters at site two, ten samples for the first site and eight for the
second site. The sediment size distribution in the study area, comprising sand, silt, and clay,
was determined through grain size analysis. The textures identified in the sediments include
sandy silt, silt, silty sand, and mud, with a slight fining trend observed towards the top,
particularly at the first site. This fining trend suggests a gradual reduction in the load capacity
of the water supplying the study area. X-ray diffraction analysis of bulk sediments revealed that
the predominant minerals are quartz and calcite, followed by feldspar, halite, dolomite, and
gypsum. The clay minerals, kaolinite and a mixed layer of montmorillonite–chlorite were
identified to be the most abundant, with additional presence of montmorillonite, illite, chlorite,
and palygorskite. The geochemical investigation highlighted a dominance of SiO2 and CaO,
succeeded by Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, Na2O, SO3, K2O, and TiO2. Trace elements included Cr, Co,
Nb, Sr, Y, and Zr, with strontium exhibiting the highest concentration of 274.7 ppm at site two,
while rubidium was the least abundant at 14.62 ppm in the same location. The relative
variability of palygorskite and kaolinite minerals at different depths indicates the influence of
chemical and physical weathering processes characterized by hydration and dehydration
phenomena in the study area. Additionally, the sediment origins were traced back to multiple
sources of igneous rocks, including rhyodacite-dacite and andesite at site one, while site two
presented andesite, andesite-basalt, and sub-alkaline basalt. The Chemical Index of Alteration
and Plagioclase Index of Alteration serve as indicators of weathering and suggest a reduction
in chemical weathering in this region.

This research study integrates geophysical, satellite remote-sensing, and surface-geology data
to derive and enhance the structural and geological understanding of the Busaiya area in
southwestern Iraq. An arid climate characterizes this area, which covers 19,500 km2.
Tectonically, the Busaiya area is located in the stable part of the Arabian Platform. In this
paper, gravity, magnetic, and seismic reflection data have been investigated to study the
surface and subsurface geological structure in more detail, since they could have potential
importance in mineral and oil exploration. The interpretation of the gravity and magnetic data
shows that the Busaiya is a sub-basin structure located at the southeastern edge of a basement
block structure and has been reactivated and subsided throughout geological history. The
boundaries and structures of the sub-basin are delineated using edge-detection filters, while
depths are determined with the tilt-depth method. Additionally, a two-dimensional depth
inversion model, oriented east-northeast and based on gravity data from the northern part of
the sub-basin, reveals both lateral and vertical variations in density contrasts. The lineaments
revealed by the Global Digital Elevation Model imaging indicate a high density, while the
Sentinel-2 data illustrate notable rock deformation along the edges of the sub-basin. The high
density of the lineaments could allow the evolution of near-surface, good-quality groundwater
aquifers. Regions within the Busaiya sub-basin are recommended for mineral and oil
exploration according to their structural situation. It is concluded that the area has undergone
significant stress-induced deformation, resulting in subsurface faulting and surface
deformation. Moreover, the area has been affected by the anticlockwise movement of the
Arabian Plate, which has contributed to a block rotation.

The Cenozoic lithostratigraphic units are the most prolific throughout the surface and in
subsurface sections, acting as hydrocarbon reservoirs, aquifers, or raw material resources in the
Kurdistan region and Iraq. Recent substantial finds of hydrocarbon resources have been
confirmed in the Kurdistan area of the Oligocene-Miocene succession as a carbonate reservoir
target. The facies types of the Kurdistan foreland basin during the Oligocene and Miocene can
be classified into two notable chronostratigraphic successions. The first prevalent facies are
reefal and open marine carbonate, mainly deposited during the Rupelian and Chattian times,
that extends into the Aquitanian. In contrast, the second predominant facies, deposited during
the Aquitanian, Burdigalian, and Langhian ages, is distinguished by a succession of carbonates
and evaporites, encompassing several formations: Hamrin, Serikagni, Euphrates, Dhiban,
Jeribe, and Fatha. This study is based on core and rock bit samples, in addition to log data from
four wells drilled in three blocks: Taza, Shakal, and Kor Mor. The lithofacies and microfacies
have been complemented by biostratigraphic data (foraminifera) to develop the
chronostratigraphic and sequence stratigraphic framework of the investigated successions. This
study revealed three third-order depositional sequences. The first third-order sequence is
represented by the late Chattian-lowermost Aquitanian succession, particularly the Ibrahim
and/or Azkand-Anah formations. The second third-order sequence is identified by the deposits
of the Euphrates Formation, marked by the absence of the Serikagni and Hamrin formations.
The third (or final) third-order sequence is illustrated by the Dhiban and Jeribe formations. In
the reservoirs, porosity is closely correlated with the main parasequence types, stacking
patterns, and depositional system tracts of each third-order sequence. The transgressive system
tracts parasequences are mostly well developed to be good reservoirs, while the High stands
system tracts are less developed, with remarkable variations at the sequence boundaries.

Kaolin is an industrial raw material that, when subjected to heat, is converted to metakaolin, a
very reactive pozzolanic admixture used in high-performance concrete. The use of locally
sourced Iraqi kaolin would offer both environmental and economic advantages by decreasing
reliance on imported materials, as well as lowering carbon emissions through partial
substitution of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). This study aims to prepare metakaolin from
white kaolin collected from the Ga’ra Formation at the Dweikhla mine situated in the Western
Desert of Iraq (Governorate of Anbar). The present kaolin was milled into a fine powder and
calcined for 3 h at 600°C to obtain the dehydroxylated and structurally transformed raw kaolin.
The chemical composition of the obtained metakaolin showed high purity (54.31% SiO₂,
37.70% Al₂O₃, 1.96% Fe₂O₃ , and 1.98% Loss on Ignition). The presence of 1.5% TiO₂ in the
metakaolin indicates trace rutile impurity with small quantities of CaO, MgO, and SO₃.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) examination revealed that
the material was amorphous and glassy and consisted of fine, platy, and irregular particles that
were partially agglomerated. Most of the particle sizes were less than 10 microns, which was
also responsible for high surface area and pozzolanic activity. These findings were further
corroborated by EDX analysis, which showed a significant increase in silica and alumina.
The produced metakaolin was tested on mortar mixes by replacing a certain mass of the OPC;
10% by weight was replaced with metakaolin. The mixes were typical 1:3 cement to sand ratios
with water-to-cement ratios of 0.5. The mechanical characterization, via compressive strength
tests realized after 2 and 28 days, demonstrated a clear improvement: strength increased from
18.1 MPa to 20.1 MPa at 2 days, and from 39.7 MPa to 44.5 MPa at 28 days. This enhancement
is attributed to the pozzolanic reaction and improved microstructure, confirming the
effectiveness of Iraqi metakaolin as a high-performance cementitious additive.

Some dust storms that blew over the city of Baghdad in April 2024 were investigated in some
locations and the following results were obtained: Volumetric analysis of the dust texture
revealed a silt content of 42.4 – 58.6 % at 49%, a clay content of 29.5 – 55.1 % at 43%, a sand
content of 7.9 – 12.4 % at 10%, a pH of 7.1 – 7.5 at an average of 8, ranging from neutral to
relatively low alkalinity, an organic matter content of 1.22 – 1.83 % at an average of 2%,
which is assumed to contain a high proportion of humic organic matter, and a percentage loss
on ignition of 11.43 – 67.17 % at an average of 15%. It is hypothesised that the reason for this
is the presence of various materials with a high proportion of calcium oxides and sulphates,
and the presence of a low proportion of silica materials. The percentage of total dissolved
salts is 511 parts per million - 748 parts per million, at an average of 619 ppm. The difference
in values is probably due to the speed and direction of the wind carrying the dust. The Hazard
Index (HI) is in descending order Chromium> Arsenic> Cobalt> Lead> Nickel> Zinc for
adults and Cr>Co>Ni>As>Pb>Zn for children, while the CR and TCR values are in
descending order Ni>Cr>As>Pb>Co for adults and Cr>Ni>As>Pb>Co for children.

Mineralogical and Geochemical investigations were conducted on three wells of the Balad
oilfields (Balad-1, Balad-4, Balad-8) in the Hartha Formation (Late Campanian-Maastrichtian),
central Iraq. The main objectives of the research are to determine the mineralogy and
geochemistry of the Hartha Formation in the Balad oil field. For this purpose, mineralogy tests
were performed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), and geochemistry (major oxides) was
determined using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) for the study area samples. The change in the
physico-chemical state during the deposition period is responsible for the variation in the CaO
content with other oxides. Mineralogical results: calcite is the most common mineral, and
dolomite is the second common mineral found in the samples under study, along with quartz and
clay minerals (kaolinite and illite). The geochemical composition of the Hartha carbonates
contains many of the oxides and a relatively small amount of argillaceous material as a result of
the transfer, and the pattern of the relations of the main oxide components suggests they are of
biochemical origin and not significantly influenced by the detrital source. Chemical classification
of Limestone in the sample area of the Balad oilfield shows that magnesian limestone is the most
abundant type of carbonatite rock. The deposited limestone of the Hartha in a near-shore, shallow
marine habitat is appropriate for receiving some terrigenous minerals.

The carbonate sequence at the Hizop section was investigated using microfacies and
biostratigraphic analyses. Lithostratigraphically, the succession comprises hard, stylolitic
limestone beds rich in chert nodules and iron oxides, characteristic of the Kometan Formation.
These overlie light brown marly limestone and shale assigned to the Shiranish Formation.
Petrographic analysis identifies two dominant microfacies in the Kometan Formation:
bioclastic packstone and glauconitic bioclastic lime packstone to grainstone. In contrast, the
Shiranish Formation exhibits three distinct microfacies: Globigerinelloides packstone,
Globigerinelloides wackestone, and foraminiferal packstone-grainstone. Biostratigraphic
investigation delineates four key biozones: The Globotruncanita elevata Partial Range Zone,
Globotruncana ventricosa Interval Zone, Dicarinella hagni Partial Range Zone, and
Muricohedbergella holmdelensis Interval Zone. These biozones indicate a Middle Turonian to
Early Santonian age for the Kometan Formation and an Early to Middle Campanian age for the
Shiranish Formation. The age gap implies the presence of a Middle to Late Santonian hiatus,
marking an unconformity between the two formations at the Hizop section in the Dokan area.

The Oligocene-Miocene (the Upper Paleogene-Early Neogene succession), obtained in the
Fauqi (FQ) and Abu Ghirab (AG) fields, is one of the most important hydrocarbon-bearing
reservoirs, located in southeastern Iraq, notably within the Missan oil fields. In the Fauqi
Oilfield, the Upper Paleogene-Early Neogene succession ranks as the second most productive,
while in the Abu Ghirab Oilfield, it serves as the main source of oil production. This study
aims to determine the main petrophysical properties (porosity, water saturation, and volume
of shale) and compared them through the units of this succession (Jeribe-Euphrates, Upper
part of Kirkuk group, Buzurgan Member, and Middle-Lower part of Kirkuk group) in four
wells (FQ-x1and FQ-x2 in the Fauqi Oilfield) and (AG-y1and AG-y2 in the Abu Ghirab
Oilfield) using Interactive Petrophysics software. The lithology of this succession is
determined using the neutron-density logs, which is Jeribe-Euphrates (J-E) unit consist of
dolomite and some limestone and anhydrite that damages the porosity in this unit and the ratio
of dolomite is increasing toward FQ Field, on the other hand the thickness of this unit is
decreasing in the same direction, while Upper Kirkuk (U.K.) unit is composed of limestone
with some dolomite and sandstone. Buzurgan Member (B.M.), which separates the upper part
of the Kirkuk unit from and Middle-Lower part of the Kirkuk unit, consists mainly of
sandstone with a few carbonates. The Middle-Lower part of the Kirkuk group (M-L.K.) is
composed of limestone, dolomite, and sandstone, as well as shale in abundance. In the FQ
field, porosity increases toward the north-west, but in the AG field, it often increases toward
the southeast. Because of the presence of anhydrite, which damages porosity, the (J-E) unit
has very low porosity. It is improved downward in the B.M. and the U.K. with high quantities
of shale. The J-E and U.K. units are considered the primary reservoir units because of their
generally low water saturation, whereas the other formations are considered water-bearing
zones. The results of this research show an important petrophysical difference between
stratigraphic units in the Fauqi and Abu Ghirab Oilfields.

The seismic method is a well-established technique for delineating subsurface structures and
gathering information. This study focuses on the Bijeel and Harir Oil Fields to ascertain
subsurface data using seismic techniques. 3D and 2D seismic profiles were employed in the
Bijeel and Harir blocks, respectively. The 3D seismic profiles reveal the subsurface structure
of the Bijeel block, exposing various faults and folds. Reflected lines in the profiles extend to
Triassic depths, enabling an investigation into the area's geological structure. This information
provides valuable insights into the geological characteristics and structural setting of the Bijeel
block, aiding in the detailed drilling process and hydrocarbon recovery of this oil field's
subsurface formations. The 2D seismic profile of the Harir field, particularly in the Mirawa
(well-1) and Harir (well-1) area, depicts significant fluctuations in reflected lines, indicating
the presence of a major anticline within the subsurface. Based on the interpretation, numerous
faults and folds were identified in this oil field and subsurface formations. These identifications
assist oil drilling companies in selecting suitable locations and directions for development
drilling operations to enhance hydrocarbon recovery in the fields.

Darbandikhan Dam is an embankment dam located in Kurdistan, Iraq, a seismically active
region. The Zagros Fold and Thrust Fault belt is known for generating significant earthquakes,
including the devastating magnitude 7.3 Ezgeleh-Sarpolzahab earthquake that struck the region
on 12 November 2017. The purpose of this study is to examine the seismic activity in the region
over the period 1917 to 2023 and its recent impact on the Darbandikhan dam structure. A total
number of 6138 events are found in national and international catalogs within the geographical
region 44.9°- 46.9° E and 34.4°- 35.6° N with magnitudes between 1.0 and 7.3 and focal depth
≤ 20 km. We also examined the induced seismic activity in the area by comparing it with the
water level of the dam's reservoir. A poor correlation between the occurrence of earthquakes
and the loading and unloading of the Darbandikhan reservoir due to the lack of a comprehensive
seismic observation system in the region. Considering that Kurdistan Iraq Seismological
Network (KISN) stations are sparsely distributed, we propose deploying a dense local network
of seismic and strong motion stations in and around the dam. The proposed network would
consist of (1) a network of strong motion stations on and inside the body of the dam to analyze
its response to earthquake shaking, (2) a network of broadband seismic stations distributed
throughout the vicinity of the dam region to monitor the local seismic activity, and (3) a network
of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) that offer a precise, continuous, and automated
approach for measuring and identifying even minor structural deformations on the dam. Note,
these proposed networks should also be considered for the other dams in Iraq, e.g., Dokan and
Duhok, as well as Mosul Dam, because they are all subject to seismic activity in the north and
northeast of the country.

Rock physics recently became widely utilized in classifying lithological units for various
purposes in geophysics, depending on well-logging and seismic inversion datasets. Nahr Umr
Formation is the targeted reflector, which was studied in well NS-1 as one of the most
productive oil fields in Iraq, the Nasiriya field, to prove the performance and accuracy of Rock
physics productivities. Six cross plots were extracted and interpreted depending on the units of
Density (RHOP) and Neutron (NHPI ) logs, which were used for lithology-predicting of the
Nahr Umr Formation, which consists mainly of porous sandstone, dolomite, clay, and shale.
The challenge of locating the most profitable layer in hydrocarbon production was achieved
using rock physics procedures to classify lithologic units of the Nahr Umr Formation. The
matching between the results of well logging analysis and hydrocarbon probability for targeted
units was extremely good due to the use of more reliable tools. The probability density function
(PDF) technique was applied to visualize the space of rock physics in two dimensions, and the
density distribution within rock units was prominently clear. Polynomial equation of Nasiriya
oil field was extracted for Nahr Umr Formation, and it was equivalent to the standard equation
of Nafe Drake according to density/ velocity curve readings.

As advanced data mining technologies are increasingly used in various aspects of life, their
application in water engineering has become essential. This study utilizes two key techniques—
clustering and k-nearest neighbor (KNN)—to analyze random variables with discontinuous
structures, such as soil types and their components. The Jableh Plain serves as a suitable case
study due to the large number of drilled wells and the availability of documented lithological
columns. The research focuses on the proportions of silt, sand, and clay—the fundamental
components of soil. The KNN technique was applied to interpolate these proportions and
generate spatial maps based on regional data. These proportions were then combined using the
equivalent soil method. Subsequently, a clustering algorithm was employed to classify the soil
based on the infiltration factor derived from the soil texture triangle and the global soil
classification system, determining the resulting soil type after the merging process. A Python
based tool was developed within the ArcGIS environment to facilitate soil classification for
users. The application of the equivalent soil method produced results that closely matched real
world data, as validated through pumping test experiments used to calculate soil infiltration
rates. This indicates that the method is not only accurate but also cost-effective, saving time,
money, and effort compared to traditional well-drilling and pumping experiments.

Heavy metal pollution in the air creates significant environmental risks and health hazards
because these substances stay in the environment while being toxic to living creatures and
gradually increase their presence in the ecosystems. A research project measured the levels of
zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) throughout Hillah city air based on
data acquired from ten specific sampling stations. This research investigates whether human
activities have negatively affected these heavy metal levels above their natural range. The
research data were analyzed by comparison against crustal background values using accepted
classification systems. The research data show that zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), and lead (Pb),
respectively, derive mainly from natural sources, yet cadmium (Cd) shows moderate levels of
contamination stemming from human activities. Excessive Cr, Pb, and Cd levels relative to
WHO standards emphasize the immediate requirement for pollution management systems.
The region suffers from heavy metal contamination mainly because of industrial emissions,
traffic density, illegal waste burning, and energy generation activities. Further research is
needed to study seasonal heavy metal exposure patterns and development protocols that
minimize human contact with pollutants.

The red and grey mudstone, which was interbedded in the middle of the Eocene layers (between
the Gercus and Pila Spi Formation) in northeastern Iraq, was studied to determine the origin of
the rocks, the climate that existed then, the intensity of the weathering process back then, and
the way the plates of the earth moved when the rocks were being formed. As per the study of
the X-Ray Fluorescence, the data indicate that MgO and CaO have more value compared to the
Archean Australian Shale (PAAS) and North American Shale Composite (NASC); however,
the amounts of other oxides are lesser. The associations of the key oxides indicate a combination
of rocks of their formation, with most being mafic, and a few being intermediate and felsic
igneous rocks, and indicating that they were formed along both the stable and unstable
continental boundaries. Yet, the samples of clay were strongly chemically weathered, and the
degree to which the chemicals were developed in the region of their origin, and this suggests
that the past climate was more wet or more dry, which suggests that the layers of the material
were not moved long distances, because the element ratios suggest that these rocks were not
oxidized, or were oxidized, and that they may have been moved long distances in the conditions
under which they were deposited being such that were either more or less oxygen-deprived, or
were entirely oxidized, and which could have been caused.

In the current study, eight samples were collected from gravely sandstone and sandstone units
of the Mukdadiya Formation, which is deposited within the Late Miocene-Pliocene
sedimentary cycle and exposed in Al-Taeeb area in Missan Governorate, southeastern Iraq,
and on the southwestern flanks of Bajalia and Band Folds in Al-Teeb area. The formation
consists of sedimentary cycles deposited as a fining-upward sequence. Heavy minerals were
separated from light minerals using heavy fluids. It was found that the heavy mineral content
consists of opaque minerals (43.66%), chlorites (8.91%), orthopyroxene (3.43%),
clinopyroxene (3.08%), hornblende (4.31%), tremolite-actinolite (2.23%), glaucophene
(1.81%), biotite (5.61%), muscovite (4.53%), grossularite (2.68%), almandite (2.15%), zircon
(2.17%), tourmaline (2.71%), rutile (2.30%), epidote (5.06%), staurolite (1.31%), kyanite
(1.54%), and chromian spinel (0.91%). The results obtained indicate that the sediment of
Mukdadiya Formation is unstable due to its high content of unstable minerals, including
opaque and ferromagnesian minerals, including chlorites, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and biotite,
as well as a low percentage of stable minerals (zircon, tourmaline, and rutile) (ZTR).
Tectonically, the sediment of the Mukdadiya Formation in the studied locality is considered to
have been deposited within an unstable and active tectonic environment. This is due to the
low content of stable minerals (ZTR), which does not indicate that the formation's sediment
was transported over long distances or subjected to recycling. The main source rocks of the
Mukdadiya Formation deposits in Al-Teeb area are basic igneous rocks, regionally
metamorphic rocks, and sedimentary rocks originating from the rocks found within the
Zagros Mountains in northeastern and eastern Iraq. This is due to the high percentage of basic
igneous minerals. In addition, there is a minor influence of other sources, namely acidic
igneous rocks, which is evident due to the low percentage of stable minerals such as zircon,
tourmaline, and rutile.

The current study deals with the biostratigraphy and paleoenvironmental analysis of the Khasib
Formation, in Well (EB 11), within the East Baghdad Oil Field, Central Iraq. Nineteen samples
were examined to recover planktonic foraminiferal microfossils from the studied section.
Thirteen species belonging to five genera have been identified and classified. These include:
Heterohelix globulosa, Heterohelix reussi, Hedbergella delrioensis, Globotruncanita arca,
Globotruncanita
bulloides,
Globotruncanita
linneiana,
Globotruncanita
elevata,
Globotruncanita lapparenti, Dicarinella concavata, Dicarinella primitiva, Dicarinella
asymetrica, Marginotruncana renzi, Marginotruncana sigali. Based on the identified species'
stratigraphic distributions Khasib Formation has been subdivided into three planktonic
foraminiferal biozones: Dicarinella concavata Interval Range Biozone, Dicarinella asymetrica
Tοtal Range Biozone, and Globotruncanita elevata Tοtal Range Biozοne. These biozοnes have
been correlated with similar studies conducted both within and beyond Iraq. Based on
stratigraphic evidence, the Khasib Formation has been concluded to be of the early Late
Coniacian to Early Campanian age.
According to the lithological characteristics and the abundance of planktonic foraminiferal
species in the studied well, the Khasib Formation was deposited in the outer shelf to the upper
bathyal of an open marine environment, which was deposited during a significant transgression
episode.

The Halgurd volcanic-dominated mountain, situated near the Iranian border, is the highest peak
within the Zagros Orogenic Belt in the Kurdistan region of northeast Iraq, reaching an elevation
of 3,607 meters above sea level. Field observations reveal that its complex structure bears a
resemblance to an ophiolite, comprising sedimentary and metasomatic rocks, thin intrusive
serpentinite, and gabbroic and mafic sheets at the mountain base, overlain by a thick sequence
of mafic lava and pillow basalts that form the mountain cap. This study focuses on the Halgurd
Pillow Basalt (HPB), using morphometric, petrological, geochemical, and mineralogical
analyses. Field data suggest that the pillows were emplaced in a shallow-water basin with gentle
slopes under rapid cooling conditions. Geochemical analysis reveals a moderately TiO₂ content
(1.5 – 2.1 wt.% %) and La/Ybₙ ratios (1.83 – 4.37), as well as significant enrichment in light
rare earth elements (LREE) relative to heavy rare earth elements (HREE), with characteristics
of a tholeiitic magma series. The HPB also displays pronounced negative Nb and Ta anomalies,
as well as elevated Th/Yb ratios, which indicate a subduction-modified mantle source,
consistent with back-arc basin magmatism. Relative to the primitive mantle, HPB samples are
moderately depleted in Cr (182 – 343 ppm) and Ni (53 – 96 ppm) and exhibit a negative Y
anomaly, suggesting the fractionation of spinel, olivine, and amphibole. Based on pillow
morphology, geochemical discrimination diagrams, and Ti/V ratios, the HPB is interpreted to
have formed in a relatively deep back-arc basin setting with affinities to enriched mid-ocean
ridge basalt (E-MORB) magmatism.

The Paleogene Avanah and Khurmala formations were investigated from a reservoir
characterization point of view from a selected well (KX) in the Khurmala Oilfield, northern
Iraq. The conventional wireline log data were used to determine the petrophysical properties
and reservoir quality of the studied formations. The common lithology of both formations is
identified based on porosity log data and utilizing density versus neutron and M-N crossplots.
The upper part of the Avanah Formation, informally known as Avanah Dense, is composed of
clean limestone and dolomitic limestone, whereas the lower part of the formation, known
informally as Avanah Porous, is composed mainly of dolostone, limedolostone, and limestone
with different ratios of shale content. Dolostone and limedolostone comprise most parts of the
Khurmala Formation, with shaly and shale intervals at different parts of the formation. The
shale volume has been determined using the data from the gamma ray log. The shale in the
Avanah Porous and the Khurmala Formation is distributed in a laminated mode in addition to
the dispersed and less frequent structural mode. Porosity was calculated for the studied
formations using the recorded data of the sonic, density, and neutron logs and corrected for
shale impact. The average neutron-density combination porosity of the Avanah Dense is about
10.7%, the Avanah Porous 24.36%, and about 24.56% in the Khurmala Formation. Permeable
zones with a few thousand millidarcies are common in the Avanah Porous and in the Khurmala
Formation, whereas tight horizons and zones of relatively low permeability are intercalated
zones with a few hundred millidarcies in the Avanah Dense. Hydrocarbons in different ratios
exist within the entire studied section. The Khurmala Formation is divided into two reservoir
units, while the Avanah Formation is divided into six reservoir units based on differences in
shale volume, porosity, permeability, and water saturation. Flow zone indicator and movable
hydrocarbon index methods were used to determine the flow capacity of the identified reservoir
units and the hydrocarbon movability within each unit.

Map matching is a key method for identifying commonalities between maps with different content. This study focuses on the Gumal Valley basin in northern Iraq, which spans two tectonic zones: the High Fold Zone in the north and the Low Fold Zone in the south. Covering an area of 935.12 km², the basin was analyzed using a structural map that was matched with topographic, geological, drainage pattern, sub-basin, lineament structure, and Active Tectonics Index (IAT) maps. The research aims to demonstrate the structural role of folds and faults in defining basin boundaries and enhancing geological and geomorphological variability. It also investigates variations in recent tectonic activity. All analyses were conducted using a 12.5-meter resolution Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and Geographic Information System GIS software. The results revealed a dextral strike-slip fault extending north-south through the study area. The movement of this fault caused the eastern part of the basin to advance southward due to the tectonic stress prevailing in northern Iraq. The study concluded that this north-south-oriented dextral strike-slip fault led to the displacement of the eastern part and its relative advance over the western part. This conclusion is supported by the concentration of high and medium tectonic activity in the eastern part and its decrease in the western part of the study area.

The present study aims to determine the tectonic setting of the Injana Formation (Late
Miocene) by using heavy mineral assemblages, which are also considered to be one of the
most important indicators of the tectonic environments. Eighteen samples of the Injana
Formation have been collected from four different sites. These are Al-Hasheema section in
Wasit Governorate, Al-Bajalia section in Missan Governorate, the Tar Al-Sayyed in Karbala
Governorate, and the Tar Al-Najaf in Al-Najaf Governorate, all of which represent the eastern
and western ends of the sedimentary basin of the formation, respectively. To notice the degree
of the influence of sediment supply from these two sides and the influence of the different
tectonic settings, heavy minerals were separated from light minerals through heavy liquid
(Bromoform), then recognized under polarized microscopy. Consequently, two groups have
been identified: opaque minerals and transparent minerals. Transparent minerals include:
chlorites, pyroxenes, amphiboles, mica, garnet, zircon, tourmaline, rutile, epidote, staurolite,
kyanite, and chromian spinel. The percentages of heavy minerals were found to be different in
the studied sites; this may be due to the different sources of sediment supply of the Injana
Formation, the first one is from the east and northeast, whereas the second one is from the
southwest, represented by the Arabian Shield. Therefore, the effect of the tectonic setting on
the formation is also diverse, so that the eastern and northeastern sides of the sedimentary
basin represent a subduction zone of the Arabian-Iranian plates. Whilst the craton tectonic
setting represents the southwest side.The present study aims to determine the tectonic setting of the Injana Formation (Late
Miocene) by using heavy mineral assemblages, which are also considered to be one of the
most important indicators of the tectonic environments. Eighteen samples of the Injana
Formation have been collected from four different sites. These are Al-Hasheema section in
Wasit Governorate, Al-Bajalia section in Missan Governorate, the Tar Al-Sayyed in Karbala
Governorate, and the Tar Al-Najaf in Al-Najaf Governorate, all of which represent the eastern
and western ends of the sedimentary basin of the formation, respectively. To notice the degree
of the influence of sediment supply from these two sides and the influence of the different
tectonic settings, heavy minerals were separated from light minerals through heavy liquid
(Bromoform), then recognized under polarized microscopy. Consequently, two groups have
been identified: opaque minerals and transparent minerals. Transparent minerals include:
chlorites, pyroxenes, amphiboles, mica, garnet, zircon, tourmaline, rutile, epidote, staurolite,
kyanite, and chromian spinel. The percentages of heavy minerals were found to be different in
the studied sites; this may be due to the different sources of sediment supply of the Injana
Formation, the first one is from the east and northeast, whereas the second one is from the
southwest, represented by the Arabian Shield. Therefore, the effect of the tectonic setting on
the formation is also diverse, so that the eastern and northeastern sides of the sedimentary
basin represent a subduction zone of the Arabian-Iranian plates. Whilst the craton tectonic
setting represents the southwest side.