Magazine of historical studies and archaeology

Writing on Islamic military systems is one of the historical fields in which Muslim scholarship has been scarce compared to other types of historical writing. However, Muhammad ibn Mankali (d. 784 AH/1382 CE) is a prominent figure in this genre, especially since he lived under the rule of a state whose foundation and continuity were based on military activity—the Mamluk state. Furthermore, Ibn Mankali himself held prestigious military positions within the Mamluk state. Therefore, his writings on various types of weapons are of particular importance, as they are the product of his theoretical and practical experience, which were fused into his works

This study examines the phenomenon of migrant labor in post-war Iraq, focusing on Egyptian labor, which has led to escalating unemployment problems and social conflicts with the local community. The dismissal of thousands of Iraqis led to foreign workers, particularly Egyptians, taking over jobs, contributing to increased social tension and tension between the two sides. The study also examined several incidents of violence and conflicts that arose as a result of competition for job opportunities, as well as the media's influence in exaggerating and misrepresenting these events. In contrast, it noted that Sudanese workers did not face the same level of conflict due to their good reputation and greater social acceptance. The study also reviewed the efforts of the Iraqi and Egyptian governments to address the crisis and organize the return of Egyptian workers, despite the fact that social and political tensions continued to negatively impact relations between the two peoples.

This study examines the compound simile and its imagistic function in modern Arabic poetry as an artistic technique that goes beyond the traditional, partial comparison typical of classical simile. It proceeds from the assumption that the compound simile operates by likening one whole configuration to another, or one scene to another, thereby shifting poetic discourse from plain statement to vivid visualization and suggestion, and becoming an organic component of the poem’s aesthetic and semantic structure. The study outlines the concept of simile, its pillars and purposes, then distinguishes its major types (sensory vs. intellectual; simple vs. compound), highlighting the specificity of the compound simile in that the point of resemblance is inferred from the network of relations within the image rather than stated explicitly. Methodologically, the research adopts a descriptive-analytical approach and applies the theoretical framework to selected examples from Mahmoud Darwish and Badr Shakir al-Sayyab. The analysis shows that compound simile contributes to scene-building in a manner akin to cinematic sequencing, intensifies meaning, and generates psychological and aesthetic effects that expand interpretive horizons, making imagery a mechanism for producing meaning and shaping poetic vision. Findings also indicate a shift from ornamentation to structural formation, linking personal experience with collective and existential contexts, and the study recommends broader corpora, semiotic and phenomenological integration, and pedagogical inclusion.

The environmental and psychological backgrounds in which Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khattab grew up had a clear influence on his behaviors after assuming the caliphate of Muslims. Furthermore, many of the events that shaped his personality before and after Islam became evident before his accession to the caliphate, particularly in terms of his strictness, decisiveness, and sternness in dealing with events and people. It can also be said that the stance of Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khattab towards non-Arabs can be thoroughly analyzed through the lens of Social Identity Theory, the Social Field, as well as the theory of Symbolic Capital. His attitudes towards non-Arabs were driven by a desire to maintain the cohesion of the Arab group that formed the foundation of the Islamic state. This led to their preference in the distribution of power and resources on one hand, and to the establishment of boundaries between Arabs and non-Arabs on the other, including restrictions on intermarriage, such as requiring compatibility in marriage. Although these policies, which might seem discriminatory on the surface, were part of an attempt to rebuild a social hierarchy similar to that which prevailed before Islam, but recontextualized in a religious framework to preserve Arab identity and Islamic Arab dominance.

The border dispute between Ecuador and Peru during the period 1932–1942 was marked by escalating political and military tensions, accompanied by repeated diplomatic attempts to reach a peaceful settlement. The dispute took on an international dimension with the involvement of the United States, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, which sought through their mediation to contain the crisis and prevent its escalation. Although these efforts succeeded in avoiding a large-scale war, the border disagreements persisted due to conflicting territorial claims between the two parties. This phase concluded with the signing of the Rio de Janeiro Conference in 1942, which represented a significant milestone in the course of diplomatic settlement during that period. However, it failed to resolve the dispute decisively, as some areas remained contested until the later decades of the twentieth century.

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James Callaghan's tenure as Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty (1950–1951), coupled with his subsequent service in the Shadow Cabinet (1951–1964), verified essential in the development of his political profession. In his role at the Admiralty, he bore charge for the administrative and financial administration of the Royal Navy, supervising its budgets and expenditure. This initial ministerial knowledge afforded him invaluable insight into senior government operations, setting a solid foundation for future leadership positions. Following Labour’s electoral overthrow in 1951, Callaghan served for thirteen years as Opposition Spokesperson across a range of key portfolios, including Transport (1951–1953), Fuel and Energy (1953–1955), Colonial Affairs (1956–1961), and eventually as Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer (1961–1964). Through this progression from junior office to senior opposition roles, Callaghan consolidated his reputation and public standing, a trajectory that ultimately facilitated his rise to the premiership.

The interests of Muslims have varied throughout the ages, especially with regard to Shari'ah matters, including the knowledge of the nisab, which is a basic element in the payment of blood money and what is related to it. This is important in the case of marriage contracts, zakaah and al-arsh. Here was the attention of Al-Qadi al-Haymi to this subject and devoted his letter to him to explain the rulings and amounts related to it.

Europe witnessed, during the period following the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and its decisions, the subjugation of many countries to foreign rule, without regard for the wishes of their populations or their national aspirations. Consequently, liberal ideas spread widely across the continent, particularly in the small states that had long felt that their rights were usurped as a result of the Congress of Vienna and its decisions. This situation stirred the peoples of these states, leading them to rise up one after another. Among these revolutions was the Belgian Revolution of 1830

From its founding during the time of Caliph Abu Ja'far al-Mansur, the city of Baghdad has enjoyed a rich scholarly tradition. The hadith scholars and jurists of Baghdad played a significant role in these studies due to their major contribution to spreading the teachings and values of Islam. Their importance increased during the last three centuries of the Abbasid Caliphate due to the deterioration of the political, social, and economic conditions. Accordingly, the research topic entitled "(Al-Daraqutni (d. 385 AH/959 AD): His Biography and Works)" came to shed light on the life of one of Baghdad's scholars, Abu al-Hasan al-Daraqutni, whom historical sources described as the Imam, the great Hafiz (memorizer of hadith), and the Sheikh of Islam, and to clarify his scholarly status, the sheikhs and scholars from whom he studied. It also aims to clarify the most important works that he left for us, which numbered 69 books. Accordingly, this study included al-Daraqutni's life, from his name, lineage, epithet, birth, sheikhs, students, the views of scholars on his scholarly status, his most important works, and his death in Baghdad.

The Conference of Foreign Ministers of Arab and African States was inaugurated in Dakar, the capital of Senegal, from April 19 to 22, 1976. This conference paved the way for the first-ever joint Arab-African summit in history. Undoubtedly, this new Arab-African meeting came at a critical stage in the Arab-African struggle for progress and development. During this period, Israeli influence in Africa declined due to the evolution of Arab-African relations and the African support for Arab causes, following the exposure of the true intentions of the Zionist entity regarding Africa’s unity and the security of its people. The resolutions of the Dakar Conference crowned these efforts by strengthening the work of joint Arab-African economic institutions and advancing the material, moral, and political support provided by Arab states to the African continent.
In light of this, the study is divided into three main sections. The first section addresses the Arab-African dialogue between the League of Arab States and the Organization of African Unity, which aimed to confront Zionist infiltration in Africa. The second section examines the first Arab-African Ministerial Conference in Dakar (April 19–22, 1976). The third section reviews the most important resolutions of the first Arab-African ministerial conference. The conclusion summarizes the key findings derived from the detailed presentation of the Dakar Conference.

The city of Sinjar was one of the important urban centers in the Jazira of the Euphrates region, and it occupied a prominent economic and administrative position among the cities of the region during the Abbasid period, alongside major cities such as Mosul and Arbil. This status was clearly manifested in its function as a mint during certain periods, reflecting its strategic importance within the framework of the Abbasid state.
This role was closely linked to Sinjar’s geographical location, as it lay at the crossroads of routes connecting Iraq with Greater Syria and Anatolia, and at the intersection of major commercial and military roads. This position contributed to the stimulation of economic activity and facilitated the integration of various regions of the Abbasid state. The presence of a mint in the city represents a direct indicator of its integration into the Abbasid financial system, particularly through the minting of silver dirhams, which constituted the backbone of monetary transactions during that era.
The striking of a rare silver dirham in the city of Sinjar during the reign of the Abbasid caliph al-Qāhir bi-llāh (320–322 AH / 932–934 CE) confirms the monetary role played by the city, as well as its direct administrative and political connection to the center of the caliphate in Madīnat al-Salām (Baghdad), especially during the fourth century AH. These dirhams bear the officially sanctioned formulas, including the name and titles of the caliph, reflecting the presence of central authority and its commitment to consolidating its political and economic influence over the cities under its control.
The dirham minted in Sinjar during the reign of al-Qāhir bi-llāh represents a highly significant historical and material source. Its study allows for a deeper understanding of the political and economic developments in the Jazira region and provides clear data on administrative organization, the monetary system as an economic institution, and the level of financial stability during that period. The artistic, calligraphic, and decorative features of this dirham highlight the extent to which the Sinjar mint adhered to the technical standards adopted by Abbasid mints, while also exhibiting certain distinctive local characteristics executed through specific dies.
Accordingly, the study of Sinjar’s dirhams—particularly those minted during the reign of Caliph al-Qāhir bi-llāh—demonstrates that the city was not merely a secondary urban center, but rather an active component of the Abbasid state’s economic and monetary structure. It played a tangible role in supporting monetary circulation and facilitating commercial exchange within the Jazira region and beyond, with neighboring cities.

The kashkul played an important role in the lives of Sufis in general and Iranian Sufis in particular. Its shape, which is made in the form of a boat or ship, has a definite symbolism for Sufi ascetics. The ship is the lifeboat with which the Sufi crosses into the world of infinite existence, and the cup is a symbol of love and knowledge of the Divine Self for them The Sufi Sufi used the kashkul to preserve the food or money that benefactors gave him, or to preserve food and drink. In addition, many of the kashkul were filled with gold and silver, which contradicts the asceticism of the Sufis. Therefore, it was sometimes used to preserve money from bandits due to the frequent travel of the Sufis, and their absence from what is going on around them during meditation and worshipIn addition, not all ascetic Sufis are poor dervishes, but some of them were sultans, princes, and wealthy people. What is most likely in recent studies is that the kashkul was made for the Sufis to use in preserving his valuables throughout his life during his journey and travel, and when he visits the holy shrines in Iraq and Iran, he donates his kashkul to them It contains the most precious possessions of the world and its ruins. Indeed, if death overtakes him before visiting these shrines, he is advised to donate his kashkil and what it contains to those holy shrines. This is an explanation for the arrival to us of hundreds of kashkil that were kept in the shrines of the pure Imams in Iraq and Iran.

Since the beginning of the third century AH, the Abbasid Caliphate witnessed a significant transformation in its military and political structure, marked by the rising influence of Turkish soldiers within the state's institutions. This shift became particularly evident during the reign of Caliph al-Mu'tasim bi’llah (218–227 AH), who was the first to systematically rely on Turkish military elements and established special military camps for them, most notably in the city of Samarra. Over time, the Turks evolved into key players in political decision-making and even became a direct source of power, which led to profound changes in the internal political system of the Abbasid state.
This study aims to explore the role played by Turkish soldiers in the internal politics of the Abbasid Caliphate during the period from 218 AH—the beginning of al-Mu'tasim's rule—until 656 AH, the year Baghdad fell to the Mongols, marking the actual end of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad. The research is divided into several thematic sections, beginning with the historical background of the Turkish military presence, followed by the development of their relationship with the caliphate, their influence in strengthening or weakening caliphs, and their involvement in appointing or deposing them. The study also examines the administrative, military, and political consequences of their increasing interference in state affairs.
The research adopts a critical historical analytical approach by examining primary historical sources such as al-Tabari’s History, Ibn al-Athir’s Al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh, and other classical and modern references. It traces the complex dynamics between the Turkish soldiers and the caliphs, and how these dynamics led to internal unrest, political coups, and severe power struggles that undermined the state's stability.
The study concludes that the Turkish military played a dual role: on one hand, they were an organized and effective force that helped protect the state during periods of weakness; on the other hand, they gradually became an independent power center, interfering in governance, weakening the authority of the caliphs, and frequently engaging in palace coups, assassinations, and political manipulation. This, in turn, led to the gradual erosion of the caliphate's prestige and unity, and the emergence of semi-independent dynasties across the Islamic world.

Jawdhar al-Ṣiqillī is considered one of the prominent and influential figures who played a positive role in the establishment of the Ismaili daʿwa in the Maghrib in 267 AH / 880 CE and in the rise of the Fatimid state. He held several positions and offices within the daʿwa, the most important of which was the rank of ḥujja in the Ismaili mission.
This study, entitled “Jawdhar al-Ṣiqillī’s Narratives about the Ismaili Imam Ismāʿīl al-Manṣūr al-Fāṭimī (334–341 AH/ 945–952 CE), includes an introduction that addresses the scope of the study and an analysis of its sources. The study consists of two sections and a conclusion.
The first section discusses Jawdhar al-Ṣiqillī’s accounts of the Ismaili Imam al-Manṣūr al-Fāṭimī, focusing on his lineage, life, and upbringing under the care of his grandfather, Imam ʿAbd Allāh al-Mahdī. It also examines how he assumed the caliphate after the death of his father, Imam al-Qāʾim, and how he appointed al-Ustādh Jawdhar al-Ṣiqillī as governor over the lands when he set out to eliminate the Kharijite Abū Yazīd b. Kīdād (334–336 AH). This section further addresses his victory over Abū Yazīd at the Battle of Friday (335 AH / 946 CE).
The second section deals with the status of al-Ustādh Jawdhar al-Ṣiqillī after Imam al-Manṣūr’s victory over the Kharijite Abū Yazīd, including Imam al-Manṣūr’s manumission of Jawdhar, bestowing upon him the title Mawlā Amīr al-Muʾminīn (Client of the Commander of the Faithful), the inclusion of his name on tirāz textiles and carpets, the Imam’s honoring of Jawdhar, and the entrusting of his treasuries to him.

The research deals with the importance of the ancient location of Yemen and its role in the nature of the relationship and contacts between the Red Sea and the Horn of Africa since the beginning of the early stages of the Stone Age, which continued and developed until later stages of historical times, through the clues and the archaeological evidence.The research focuses on both the geography of the Red Sea and its impact in shaping civilizational links between its peoples, in addition to the location of southern Arabia, which helped to widen and diversify contacts and external relations between it and neighboring areas bordering the Red Sea and the Horn of Africa. The ancient Yemeni man in southern Arabia was unable to live in isolation during prehistoric times; this is due to his distinguished geographical location, and he was in close contact with the areas adjacent to him inside and outside the Arabian Peninsula, which began to crystallize during the early periods of the Stone Age, and in particular with the regions of the Horn of Africa since the Paleolithic period in its two phases, the Oldwanian and the Acheulean. According to what was shown by the archaeological data that were revealed in various sites in Yemen, which coincided with what was discovered in the regions of the Horn of Africa, where evidence was found indicating the spread of early human groups. In addition what was shown by archaeological evidence, that represented an extension of those contacts with some areas of North Africa during the seventh millennium BC. M, as we find that it had established early links with the (Egyptian) civilization by land through the Sinai desert, in addition to the sea route. Here the role played by the southern Arabian Peninsula as a passageway for the movement of these human groups between East Africa and Asia becomes clear.

This research revolves around onne of the royal figures who had significant influence on the history of ancient Mesopotamia, namely King Shar Kali- Sharri(2254-2230 BC), who assumed the throne after the death of his father, Tar-Sin (2291-2255 AD). This King gained great fame in the era of the Akkadian state in particular, and Mesopotamia in general, due to his political and urban achievements. he paid attention to the political aspect and later launched military campaigns against the enemies of the Akkadian-State, the result of which was victory. As for the urban aspect, he paid great attention to rebuilding and restoring temples.the king was particularly in the temple of the god Night.

Fries rebellion is a regional uprising resumed by the eastern districts of Pennsylvania during 1798-1799, as a result of the mismanagement of the federal governmental administration concerning Alien act and House tax act enacted by the end of 1798.
Fries and his followers led efforts to release the prisoners of Bethlehem in March 1799 . consequently Adam’s administration initiated to suppress the rebellion as soon as possible to restore order and tranquility in the troubled regions .
The most important outcome of this rebellion is that it consolidated the governmental power and caused the Federalists lost the presidential election for the Democratic- republican rivals in 1800 . .

The environment played a major role in the unity and cohesion of the inhabitants of the Sumerian city-states. The Sumerian described himself as ki-an-gi (“the inhabitant of the land of the Lord of the Reeds”), which is the highest expression of a unifying thought that reflects a profound concept of citizenship emphasized by the Sumerians. This concept came to occupy an important place in the philosophy behind constructing the system that governed Sumerian society.
Unity in political, religious, social, and economic thought laid the foundations for an advanced civilization that taught the ancient world writing and produced one of the greatest cultures in history.
Thus, unity in the civilization of Mesopotamia was not limited to politics alone. The city-states of the Early Dynastic Period developed a harmonious intellectual framework that outlined a unified vision across all aspects of life, and unity in governance was merely the culmination of this coherence.
Reaching such a result was not a coincidence; the inhabitants of Mesopotamia endured harsh environmental challenges. The rains were destructive, often collapsing the roofs of houses; hail crushed the stalks of wheat and barley before harvest; and the severe, untimely floods destroyed their crops. Added to this were internal conflicts between the city-states and external threats, the most dangerous of which were invasions that left cities in ruins.

In the late 1920s, King Abdulaziz Al Saud invited American economic, geological, and engineering experts to explore the Kingdom in search of underground water resources and minerals. These experts discovered significant quantities of groundwater, as well as mines rich in gold and silver. Moreover, they uncovered oil fields in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. At the forefront of these experts was the American economist, geologist, and engineer, Karl Twitchell.
After conducting field surveys of the region’s natural wealth, Twitchell discovered several valuable mines, including those of gold and silver. With his geological and economic expertise, he was able to establish what became known as the Saudi Mining Company. In addition to his discovery of vast economic resources, he also identified major oil fields, including the Dammam and Qatif oil fields.
These discoveries initiated by Twitchell provided strong motivation for American investors and economic experts to turn their attention to Saudi Arabia and to begin signing economic agreements related to the extraction and refining of oil. These economic agreements were later followed by financial and military agreements that aligned with American strategic interests. As a result, after American oil companies secured the rights to invest in Saudi oil, the United States was able to establish a military base in Saudi Arabia—known as Dhahran Air Base—to protect its interests in the region.
The remarkable achievements of geologist Karl Twitchell eventually drew the admiration of King Abdulaziz Al Saud, who appointed him as his economic advisor. Through his efforts, Twitchell succeeded in securing major economic gains for the United States, most notably granting American oil companies—foremost among them Standard Oil of California—the concession to develop Saudi oil. This, in turn, opened the door to growing American influence in the Arabian Gulf region, particularly in Saudi Arabia, and effectively marked the beginning of the decline of British dominance, which had prevailed over the Gulf for more than 150 years.

This study aimed to clarify the Lockerbie bombing of 1988, in which an American airliner exploded over the village of Lockerbie, Scotland, killing approximately 270 people. The Iraqi newspapers Al-Jumhuriya and Al-Thawra, from 1988 to 1992, presented their official stance on the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103. Their political discourse was characterized by caution, but as events unfolded, international media coverage of the Lockerbie incident intensified. The Iraqi newspapers outlined the key stages of the Lockerbie case, calling for an international investigation and urging against directing accusations at Libya, given the developments in Libya during the rule of President Muammar Gaddafi. The two newspapers raised several questions within the political context of the investigations, particularly in light of the strained relations between the United States and Libya. This study, focusing on the 1990s, examined the coverage of the Iraqi newspapers Al-Jumhuriya and Al-Thawra, highlighting their solidarity with the Libyan position in the face of perceived double standards from the international community, and their earnest calls for action from the United States. Britain, regarding compliance with the law and the rule of reason based on the outputs of international arbitration, especially after the United States and Britain announced the accusation of citizens in Libya, and demanded that the Libyan authorities hand them over, the Iraqi newspapers announced Libya’s refusal to hand over the Libyan accused, and considered its adherence to national sovereignty. The study also clarified, on the other hand, the role of the Arab League in finding a diplomatic solution, and the call for respect for international laws. The Iraqi newspapers in their issues also paid great attention to the Security Council resolutions, and the extent to which those resolutions reflect the occurrence of chaos in the field of international powers more than their pursuit of achieving international justice

This abstract aims to highlight the important and essential aspects of our study of the city of Karkh Jadan, by examining its geographical location and the origin of its name, as well as its military roles and political conditions, and the extent to which these influenced neighboring regions and the general conditions of Iraq during the Abbasid era. The study indicates that the city's role emerged during the Abbasid rule in Baghdad, and its mention in historical sources and chronicles increased during this period. We also highlight the factors that attracted and retained scholars, particularly those from the city of Karkh Jadan, and the cultural legacy it added to enrich the scientific and administrative life of the City of dar al salam. .

This study examines the issue of the sources of Qur'anic revelation from an Orientalist perspective, a topic that has generated considerable debate in modern Orientalist studies due to its direct implications for understanding the origin of the Qur’an and the nature of divine revelation. The research focuses on analyzing the major Orientalist trends that question the divine source of revelation. Some Orientalists have argued that the Qur’an originated from internal sources related to the personality of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) or from the Arab environment, its traditions, and poetry. Others have suggested that it was influenced by external sources such as Judaism, Christianity, and other earlier religions. The study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach by presenting the concept of revelation in both linguistic and terminological contexts, outlining its forms in the Qur’an, and critically examining Orientalist claims through reference to Qur’anic texts, historical evidence, and rational analysis. The research concludes that many Orientalist arguments in this regard lack objectivity and scientific rigor, relying largely on preconceived assumptions and unsupported conclusions. It affirms that, within the Islamic perspective, Qur'anic revelation represents a sacred divine source that cannot be explained as a product of internal or external human influences. The study also emphasizes the importance of developing critical awareness of such claims and addressing them through sound academic methodology.

The research deals with the battle to evacuate foreign forces from Lebanon, after Lebanon gained independence. The evacuation from Lebanese soil was a reality more wonderful than fiction, a dream truer than reality, and a source of happiness for all Lebanese. The research also deals with the external factors that facilitated the evacuation of foreign armies and the impact of World War II on Lebanon's entry into the battle to evacuate foreign forces.
Lebanon was suffering from numerous problems after the transfer of power to the Vichy government, the shift in French public policy, and emerging problems with Britain. Furthermore, the policy of the new High Commissioner, Dentz, towards Lebanon was no longer clear.
The impact of the war on Lebanon was not limited to the political and economic aspects, but extended to the living and administrative reality of state institutions. World War II had a direct impact on Lebanon's independence, and one of the priorities of national tasks after independence was to demand the withdrawal of foreign forces from Lebanon. The Lebanese Parliament played a heroic role in independence and withdrawal.
In addition to external factors that facilitated the evacuation, the issue of the withdrawal of foreign forces from Lebanon sparked controversy between two Lebanese factions: the Constitutional Bloc, led by Bechara El Khoury, which received British support for the removal of the mandate and the withdrawal of foreign forces from Lebanon, and the National Bloc, led by Emile Edde, which adhered to all aspects of the mandate and the French presence in Lebanon.
Lebanon insisted on refusing to sign any treaty with France before the evacuation, despite the fact that the French and British insisted on doing so, and as a result of British interventions alongside Syria and Lebanon, to force the French to withdraw without signing any treaty, the French authorities were forced to evacuate Syria in 1945, and Lebanon on December 31, 1946. Colonel Fouad Chehab took over the command of the Lebanese Army, after the Lebanese divisions had been under the command of the French Army.

Over the past three decades, calls have increasingly been made for a comprehensive renewal of Islamic kalam (theology)—whether classical or traditional. This renewal is not limited to adding modern topics, but rather extends to critiquing the foundations and methodologies of the old science as a first step toward establishing a new discipline of Islamic theology. This new approach draws on contemporary methods in the social sciences and addresses issues that are now of great concern to human beings, issues that were not previously explored, such as society, the individual, freedom, ethics, human rights, and the human religious experience.
Revelation has emerged as the central theme in this new kalam, particularly in explaining the nature of revelation and the possibility of God communicating with human beings in human language. It is considered a new discipline in that it does not replicate the methodologies of classical theology, but rather liberates itself from many of its repeated debates and problems. At the same time, it expands to encompass new questions linked to metaphysical concerns that have arisen in the minds of contemporary humanity but were unfamiliar to earlier generations—especially questions related to the meaning of human existence, life, and destiny.

Since gaining independence in 1961 and entering parliamentary life, Kuwait has sought to give legal and legislative status to all its laws. This is achieved by the government submitting draft laws to the Kuwaiti National Assembly, which represents the highest legislative body in the country. Various important laws have been submitted, including budget laws, to regulate a crucial aspect of Kuwait's financial affairs, especially after the significant increase in financial resources resulting from oil revenues. This step opened the door for members of the National Assembly, across the political spectrum, to debate budget laws, directing sharp criticism at the government for its shortcomings in providing services to all segments of Kuwaiti society. Despite the intensity of the debates in the Assembly sessions, the laws were approved, demonstrating everyone's commitment to the best interests of Kuwait and achieving prosperity for its people.

This study aims to examine and analyze the publications of Oil and Development magazine related to the regulation of Iraqi oil transportation affairs during the period (1975–1990). It covers the establishment of the national fleet and strategic pipeline projects, and highlights the impact of political and economic factors on this sector. The study also clarifies the effects of the First Gulf War on oil infrastructure and assesses the effectiveness of the strategies adopted by Iraq to confront challenges and ensure the continuity of its oil exports.

The idea of constructing dams to control the Nile River's floodwaters and the potential for benefiting from them has preoccupied numerous Egyptian governments throughout history. Muhammad Ali Pasha attempted to build some dams and barrages to control a portion of the floodwater for use in irrigation projects, efforts which continued until the beginning of the twentieth century with the construction of the Aswan Reservoir in 1902. However, despite these efforts, a significant portion of the floodwaters continued to be lost into the Mediterranean Sea without being utilized. This prompted the consideration of building another dam with a greater storage capacity than the Aswan Reservoir, known as the High Dam to distinguish it from the Aswan Reservoir. The goal was to utilize the floodwaters, provide more water to increase and expand agricultural land, and additionally generate hydroelectric power. However, the idea of building the High Dam in the second half of the 1940s did not materialize into an executable project until after the July Revolution of 1952.
Studies and preliminary estimates were conducted to begin taking executive steps for the High Dam project. This led the United States to prepare to contribute a portion of the foreign currency required for the project by offering a grant to Egypt at the end of 1955, in cooperation with Britain and alongside a contribution from the World Bank, according to their terms. Their hope was to achieve objectives serving their interests not only in Egypt but across the Middle East, amidst the policy of superpowers competing for control over strategic regions during the Cold War years. Egypt rejected the conditions set by the United States, and the American administration soon realized that its aims for participating in the project were unattainable. This led it to withdraw its offer within a short period of no more than a few months, using pretexts claiming Egypt's inability, due to its weak economy, to complete the project and citing its negative repercussions on the Egyptian people. The United States faced criticism even from some Americans themselves, followed by Egypt's nationalization of the Suez Canal Company.
This research aims to shed light on the United States' stance regarding the construction of the High Dam. The research is divided into three main sections: the first section addressed the motivations for building the High Dam following the July 1952 Revolution; the second section dealt with the American position on the construction of the High Dam, its impact on the nature of relations with Egypt, and the reasons for the withdrawal of US participation in financing the dam project; while the third section focused on studying the American stance regarding Egypt's announcement of the nationalization of the Suez Canal on July 26, 1956.

This research examines Libya's stance on developments in the Palestinian issue (2002-2011) through five interconnected phases: Libya's position on the Al-Aqsa Intifada in 2000; Libya's position on the Arab Peace Initiative and the recognition of a Palestinian state with Jerusalem as its capital in 2002; Libya's position on the Palestinian legislative elections and the death of Yasser Arafat in 2003-2004; Libya's position on the Hamas-led Palestinian Authority in 2005-2007; and Libya's position on the disputes between Hamas and Fatah regarding the administration of the Palestinian state in -2011- 2007.
The research showed that Libya's position during this period was one of unwavering support for the Palestinian cause. It was considered among the Arab states that adopted a strongly worded political stance against Israel. At the popular and humanitarian level, Libya witnessed extensive donation campaigns in support of Palestine. Furthermore, the official Libyan media played a supportive role for the Palestinian cause and condemned Israeli policies. Libya's relations with the official Palestinian leadership, particularly during Yasser Arafat's era, cooled due to political disagreements concerning negotiations. After 2006, during the Fatah-Hamas split, Libya attempted to maintain a neutral stance, but its rhetoric leaned towards supporting the resistance. Colonel Muammar Gaddafi rejected normalization of relations and called for resistance against the occupation.

This research examines the field of Classical Archaeology, a primary branch of archaeology dedicated to the study of the material remains of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. The study aims to trace the historical trajectory of the discipline’s emergence and evolution, particularly within Europe. It explores its formation as an independent field of knowledge during the Renaissance, its subsequent development throughout the Enlightenment and the nineteenth century, and the modern advancements characterizing the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Furthermore, the paper emphasizes the fundamental importance of this specialization in uncovering the cultural heritage of these civilizations and its impact on current archaeological practices and trends. The research problem is addressed through several pivotal questions: What is the nature of Classical Archaeology? What were the key historical stages and events that shaped its path? What shifts in perspectives and research methodologies has it undergone? And finally, how do these factors influence contemporary archaeological studies? The significance of this research lies in providing an integrated historical-analytical framework for the evolution of Classical Archaeology. Moreover, it seeks to clarify how the discipline addresses current challenges related to cultural heritage and community rights within contemporary global contexts, thereby contributing to a clearer understanding of its role in preserving and managing this heritage today.

The Third Kingdom of Ur witnessed significant economic growth, especially since it witnessed a tight administrative system, political development, and military expansion, which was greatly reflected in the economic life of the individual and society. Among the most prominent results of the advanced economic system is the expansion of agricultural land, the increase in fields, the expansion of residential homes, and the organization of orchards. This required them to use measuring tools to organize weights, measurements, and areas of various sizes and shapes. It was necessary for them to use basic measurements to meet the urgent need that was consistent with the administrative system and the cuneiform text under study, which represents a survey limit for coating a number of walls with plaster mortar for an important administrative building, likely a temple. The text mentioned several units for measuring area, including the sar, which equals 36m, the ninda, which equals 6m, and the kuš3, which equals 50 cm, All of these were carried out under the supervision and at the expense of the šabra priest.

The Spanish voyages to the New World in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries represented a crucial turning point in the history of Central America. The discovery of the Honduran coast played a prominent role in consolidating Spanish influence within the region. These voyages came in the context of the frantic European competition to discover new lands and exploit their resources, in addition to the Spanish crown\'s endeavor to expand the scope of its empire outside the European continent. The successive exploratory campaigns contributed to paving the way for military conquest, which later turned into an organized colonial project aimed at subjugating the indigenous population and controlling economic resources. This continued until Honduras gained its independence in 1821. Spanish colonialism left deep effects on the social, economic, and political structure of Honduran society. The importance of studying this period stems from the fact that it represents a pivotal era in the political history of Honduras, which contributed to shaping the patterns of governance and defining the limits of power and the mechanisms for its exercise.

The study dealt with the settlement sites of the newly discovered Bronze Age culture in Sana'a Basin region. It is an archaeological study covering the time period from the fourth millennium to the first millennium BC. Through this study, the researcher seeks to provide a clear picture and new evidence showing human connection to these sites since prehistoric Ages, and the historical extension of continuous settlement until the eras of stability and the emergence of the ancient Yemeni kingdoms, Thus, clarifying the ambiguity that researchers find about the transition from the Bronze Age to historical times and the emergence of the ancient Yemeni kingdoms. This study aims to prove the human connection to these sites since prehistoric Ages, and the factors that helped choose their places, the stages of their development, and the historical extension of continuous settlement there, by tracing the stages of settlement that these societies went through in the process of developing their cultures and developing their living, economic, and social lives.

One of the most important interests and paths of Dr. Ibrahim saeed Al-Baidhani as an Iraqi historian and academic, was the field of research in historical thought and the History Industry, and this matter was embodied through writing research and articles in the field of historical thought in many articles and research, including the historical importance of the document, historical criticism, history science and historical knowledge, as well as the topic of time and the call for the establishment of an Iraqi historical School of thought, and this interest in historical thought was embodied through the History Industry and leading activities and events under the umbrella of the International Union of historians, which he leads, these activities and scientific events in the form of seminars international document symposium and historical criticism symposium, as well as He held international conferences in this direction, the most prominent conference was on schools of thought, and another conference was on the relationship of history with other sciences. Moreover, the leadership and administrative work of the International Union of historians has moved towards the goal of making the International Union of historians an intellectual platform for the history industry supported by
a solid scientific journal issued by it.

Social welfare is as old as humanity, as it has a fundamental role in the advancement of human societies by solving social problems and alleviating their severity, but the complexity of life over time has made the state take on its Disability some of the burden of citizens in the field of social welfare such as education, health, security, work, housing and other basic services. Therefore, this study came in order to reveal the patterns of social welfare among the Arabs until the tenth century Hijri, where the concept of Social Welfare, its classification and the stages of the development of social welfare, and social welfare in the tenth century Hijri were addressed through an introduction and three treatises. The study reached a number of conclusions, the most important of which is that the concept of social welfare evolved in the tenth century AH from charity to a state or welfare society. Social Welfare also has characteristics that represent all the necessary services in order to achieve the minimum standard of living for citizens, which contributed to the emergence of two types of social welfare: therapeutic and institutional.