Misan Journal of Political and International Studies

The Kurds in Iraq have played a significant political role since 2003, actively contributing to the establishment of the post-2003 political system and securing a recognized position within a federal framework. They participated effectively in federal governance and were able to consolidate a range of political and institutional gains.
However, this influence has gradually declined over time. This decline can be attributed to a combination of internal and external factors. Internally, political fragmentation and competition among Kurdish parties over power and influence within the Kurdistan Region weakened their collective bargaining capacity and reduced their ability to act as a unified political force. Externally, ongoing disputes with the federal government over key issues—particularly natural resources, territorial boundaries, and administrative authority—further constrained their political leverage.
As a result, the Kurdish political position in Iraq has shifted from a decisive and influential role in the immediate post-2003 period to a more constrained and fragmented one, limiting their capacity to shape national political outcomes.

The world today is witnessing an unprecedented acceleration of modern technological development and Artificial Intelligence (AI), AI has become present in all aspects of life, gradually transforming into one of the active factors in decision-making, future prediction, and risk management.
The objective of this study is to explore new horizons for employing this technology in peace dialogues and contemporary international peacebuilding. Accordingly, this research aims to enrich peacebuilding studies by addressing the use of Artificial Intelligence technologies and the exceptional nature of technological interventions in peace processes, However, doubts remain regarding technology can replace direct interaction in peace processes. Theses concern arise from ethical issues, the potential for misuse, and algorithmic bias.

Climate change has become one of the most significant issues in the contemporary world, as it directly affects public health and imposes substantial economic burdens on states. These changes result from both human activities (industrialization, fossil fuel combustion, and environmental pollution) and natural transformations intensified by human behavior (rising temperatures, declining rainfall, acid rain, desertification, and other environmental challenges). Today, states face increasing commitments to reduce fossil fuel consumption, rising challenges in fulfilling food security requirements, and complex problems associated with rural-to-urban migration of farmers, leading to increased unemployment in urban centers. Climate change also alters the use and type of agricultural land, disrupts climatic patterns, and negatively affects the public health systems of living organisms. Iraq, in particular, has found itself confronted with these escalating challenges, which are increasingly linked to the foundations of national security.
The core of the problem lies in the fact that the impacts of climate change are not limited to rising temperatures or decreasing rainfall. Rather, they extend to issues such as food security and dependence on imports, the deterioration of public health systems, rising unemployment, and the need for the state to allocate substantial financial resources to mitigate the negative effects of climate change and to provide services that were previously unnecessary under more stable and healthier climatic conditions.

This study examines the expanding role of Private Military and Security Companies (PMSCs) in advancing the strategic interests of major powers within the contemporary international system. It argues that PMSCs have evolved beyond their traditional auxiliary and technical functions to become influential non-state instruments used to achieve security, political, and economic objectives, while minimizing the political and legal costs associated with direct military intervention.
Adopting an analytical–interpretive approach grounded in International Relations theories, the study integrates selected case studies from the United States, Russia, and various African contexts. These cases demonstrate how PMSCs—such as groups linked to entities like Wagner Group—have been utilized to project influence, manage conflicts, and secure economic interests in strategically significant regions.
The findings indicate that the growing reliance on PMSCs reflects a broader transformation in the instruments of power and a shift toward the privatization of violence. This trend raises critical legal, ethical, and accountability challenges, highlighting the urgent need for binding international regulatory frameworks and more effective oversight mechanisms to govern their activities.

India\'s developmental experience has undergone profound and complex transformations since its independence in 1947, primarily driven by the adoption of economic liberalization policies and integration into global markets. India has significantly benefited from its abundant human capital and the rapid expansion of its technology, science, and digital services sectors. Furthermore, foreign investments have played a pivotal role in comprehensive infrastructure development, thereby bolstering agricultural, industrial, and commercial growth. The diversity of natural and mineral resources, coupled with a vast domestic market, has provided crucial opportunities to stimulate both production and consumption.
The Indian developmental trajectory stands out as a distinguished model within the developing world. It represents a nation that has achieved substantial economic, scientific, and social progress, capitalizing on its material and human resources alongside influential geopolitical factors. Moreover, as the world\'s largest democracy, India has successfully preserved its national unity. This progressive development has been consistently coupled with economic openness since the 1970s and surging foreign direct investments.
Nevertheless, India continues to grapple with a myriad of obstacles and diverse challenges. Chief among these are widespread poverty, socio-economic stratification, and infrastructural deficits—despite the completion of major macro-projects. Additionally, rapid population growth has exacerbated environmental degradation and resource mismanagement. Externally, India faces recurrent geopolitical challenges, particularly concerning its borders with neighboring Pakistan and China.

This study seeks to shed light on the nature of Qatari-US relations after 2012, attempting to establish a theoretical framework that explains the strategic cooperation between the two countries across military, economic, and diplomatic spheres. These relations have frequently faced challenges imposed by the complex interactions within the regional and international environment, especially as Qatar pursues an active foreign policy characterized by combining contradictions—acting as a strategic ally of the US while supporting Iran and maintaining relationships with both Israel and Hamas. The research identifies that the relationship between the two parties is built on activating mechanisms of mutual dependence, which have transformed the foundations of disagreement into pillars that support rapprochement. This dynamic has paved the way for Qatar to strike a balance between strengthening its independence in the regional and international arena and maintaining its role as a strategic ally of the United States in the Middle East.

Global politics has undergone significant transformations since the beginning of the twenty-first century, reshaping political, security, economic, and technological dynamics at both regional and international levels. These shifts have had profound implications for states with complex geopolitical positions, particularly Iraq. Since 2003, Iraq has occupied a central position within a highly volatile regional and international environment, driven by its strategic location and the intersection of competing external interests.
This study analyzes the major challenges arising from these transformations and their impact on Iraq during the period (2003–2025). It focuses on key regional and international variables and examines their effects on Iraq’s internal stability and its evolving regional role. Methodologically, the study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach to assess patterns of interaction and response.
The research is structured into two main sections. The first explores regional challenges and Iraq’s strategies in addressing them, while the second examines international challenges and their broader implications, highlighting Iraq’s efforts to manage external pressures and mitigate their consequences.
The study concludes that, despite the complexity of its geopolitical environment, Iraq has pursued relatively balanced policies that have contributed to maintaining a degree of internal stability. However, persistent external pressures and structural constraints continue to limit its capacity to fully assert an effective and independent regional role.

International relations in the post–Cold War era have undergone significant transformations, marked by the emergence of the United States as a globally dominant power alongside growing indications of an emerging multipolar world order. Within this context, the Russian–Chinese partnership represents a strategic model for examining the role of major powers in reshaping the international system.
This study aims to analyze the motivations behind Russian–Chinese cooperation and to explore its political, economic, and military dimensions, while also assessing the challenges and opportunities associated with achieving global multipolarity. The research adopts descriptive-analytical and comparative approaches to understand the historical and structural developments of this partnership. It further highlights the positive relationship between the level of strategic cooperation between the two countries and their ability to challenge Western hegemony, thereby strengthening their influence on international decision-making and contributing to the balance among major powers.

This study sheds light on Russia’s expansion in North Africa as one of the most significant factors contributing to the reshaping of regional and international balances of power. The study examines the multiple motivations behind this expansion, which extend beyond the military dimension to include political, economic, and cultural aspects, as well as the tools and mechanisms employed by Russia to enhance its influence in the region, such as political alliances, military agreements, and strategic economic investments. The study also discusses the determinants and constraints facing Russian policy, including regional and international interactions, in order to provide a comprehensive understanding of the nature of Russian expansion and its various dimensions, while highlighting its impact on the balance of power in North Africa, a region of considerable geopolitical importance.

The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries in general, and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in particular, occupy a position of significant importance in regional and international relations. This is due to their vast natural resources (oil and gas) and their strategic location. They represent a crossroads of transportation routes between three continents and a crossroads of various trade routes. They also encompass key international waterways that control the transport of oil to industrialized nations. Furthermore, the region\\\\'s geographical location is invaluable due to the numerous islands of military importance that control the entrance to the Gulf and international shipping lanes.
Saudi Arabia\\\\'s rise in the Middle East faces numerous influential variables, both regional and global. Among the most prominent of these are escalating geopolitical tensions in the region, which could affect stability and security, as well as global economic shifts such as fluctuating oil prices and the rise of renewable energy, which pose a challenge to the Saudi economy\\\\'s dependence on oil. Saudi Arabia also faces challenges in achieving economic diversification and diversifying its sources of income away from oil, in addition to social challenges such as high unemployment rates and providing job opportunities for young people. The year 2003 represented a new turning point in the security environment for Saudi Arabia, as regional and international changes, including the American occupation of Iraq and its unforeseen repercussions, led to regional instability and undermined the foundations of the security situation that prevailed in the region before that year.

Technological advancements in the late 20th century led to an evolution in the concept of traditional diplomacy. Technological progress and developments in communication have made communication between peoples, societies, and nations easier and faster. The spread of the internet around the world has transformed the world into a small village where communication between countries and peoples is rapid. While the Vienna Conventions of 1961 established diplomacy as a language of communication and rapprochement, However, the spread of the Internet around the world and the emergence of these networks through their widespread use on websites such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, etc.
The increasing reliance on the Internet and information technology by all countries of the world has made the world a small village where communication is fast, easy and at a low cost, through which the largest possible amount of information and data is transmitted around the world, in addition to the reliance on digital technology in politics and economics. This stems from the reliance on cyberspace, which is a global domain consisting of interconnected networks and technological infrastructure containing a huge amount of information and data, which includes (the Internet, communication networks, computer systems, processors and embedded control units).

This study examines the course of U.S.–Iranian negotiations in 2025 by analyzing the nature of these negotiations and the objectives of the parties involved, with reference to previous rounds of negotiations between the two sides, particularly those related to the Iranian nuclear file, economic sanctions, and bilateral relations between the United States and Iran. The study demonstrates that this course has been characterized by instability and volatility, as negotiations have largely taken an indirect form due to the complexity of the issues under discussion and the interconnection of internal, regional, and international factors influencing the process. Furthermore, the study discusses the implications of these negotiations for the regional environment in the Middle East, particularly their impact on levels of regional tensions, the nature of security and political interactions among the states of the region, and their repercussions for regional security issues and indirect conflicts

Social differentiation among human groups cultivates diverse cultural systems and values that enrich the social and political structure. This diversity is particularly valuable when it fosters coexistence and harmony within the political unity of the state, thereby enhancing the political system\'s effectiveness through its absorption of diverse cultural inputs and providing greater flexibility in policy formulation. Given Iraq\'s diverse social components, there is a critical need for legal, political, and institutional guarantees that protect these groups and strengthen the bonds of cooperation within the Iraqi social fabric. This should be framed within a unified national identity that reflects a supreme sense of belonging to the homeland, while simultaneously preserving each social component\'s right to maintain its specific heritage, values, and rituals within its own social sphere. Although the post-2003 Iraqi political system adopted these principles within its constitutional, institutional, and legislative frameworks, the turbulent post-transition circumstances and recurring crises hindered their realization. Furthermore, the invocation of the painful historical legacy of the previous regime\'s inhuman practices against various social components has exacerbated the obstacles to peaceful coexistence. Overcoming societal divisions has become increasingly complex, particularly as these divisions have been entrenched in the political performance of the ruling powers. Therefore, this research aims to identify the most prominent obstacles to peaceful coexistence in Iraq and to propose effective solutions to overcome them.

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The study revolves around the strategic ambiguity in US policy towards the Iranian nuclear program after 2015. The study seeks to reveal the process of employing this strategy by successive US presidencies since 2015, in addition to attempting to conduct a comprehensive evaluation of the results, and to know its impact on the crisis, as well as its compatibility with the declared goals or true intentions that each administration tried to achieve through this strategy. The most prominent results reached by the study are that the ambiguity strategy worked to succeed the US traditional deterrence policy, and made it not forced to use direct military tools except in limited cases. This is because the ambiguity in US foreign policy contributed to making Iran reevaluate its positions and behavior as a result of pressure and the growing state of uncertainty in its foreign and domestic decisions. The results of this strategy on the Iranian nuclear program crisis varied as a result of the succession of US presidencies during that period. During the term of President Obama, the United States succeeded in employing a strategy consistent with the declared goals of formulating and approving an international agreement, but President Trump attempted to employ this strategy towards other alternatives after withdrawing from The previous agreement failed because it attempted to use this strategy to achieve goals other than those announced, namely reducing Iran's regional influence and missile capabilities, which Iran rejects and considers non-negotiable red lines. Under President Biden, despite his efforts to reach a new agreement with Iran, his attempt was unsuccessful due to the restrictions imposed by the previous administration, which made returning to the previous agreement without making new amendments to it a defeat for the United States.

This study analyzes the evolving role of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in the Horn of Africa after 2005, with a focus on its security, strategic, and geopolitical dimensions. It explores how NATO’s engagement in the region has shifted from traditional collective defense to a broader security framework addressing transnational threats, including piracy, terrorism, and maritime insecurity.
The research examines NATO’s mechanisms of intervention, particularly its naval operations, capacity-building initiatives, and cooperation with regional and international actors. It argues that NATO’s involvement reflects a dual logic: on one hand, it contributes to maintaining international security and protecting vital maritime routes; on the other, it aligns with the strategic interests of major global powers seeking influence in a geopolitically sensitive region.
Furthermore, the study highlights the increasing complexity of the Horn of Africa due to the growing presence of competing actors such as China and Russia, which challenges NATO’s role and raises questions about the sustainability and legitimacy of its interventions.
The research concludes that achieving long-term stability in the Horn of Africa requires strengthening regional security frameworks, promoting equitable partnerships, and balancing external involvement with local ownership. NATO’s future role will depend on its ability to adapt to shifting geopolitical dynamics while maintaining credibility as a security provider rather than a tool of hegemonic influence.

The concept of power in international relations has undergone profound transformations driven by the technological and scientific revolution, which has fundamentally altered the comprehensive power structure of states. Power has transitioned from its traditional paradigm—rooted purely in material and military elements—into more complex dimensions encompassing cognitive, technological, and digital capabilities. The techno-military revolution emerges as a primary manifestation of this shift, where military superiority is now contingent upon the acquisition of advanced technologies, ranging from artificial intelligence and military robotics to smart weapons and cyberspace. Conversely, traditional power, represented by conventional armies and physical arsenals, remains an indispensable pillar for deterrence and control. However, it has ceded its central position to technological power, which currently serves as the primary engine of contemporary warfare.
This study seeks to analyze the techno-military revolution as a novel phase in the evolution of power concepts. It investigates the dialectical relationship between traditional deterrence mechanisms and cyber power, assessing their impact on regional and international balances of power. Furthermore, the study explores the implications of this paradigm shift for the structure of the international system, particularly with the rise of new actors whose technological prowess occasionally surpasses the capabilities of major powers equipped with massive conventional arsenals. The research concludes that power in the twenty-first century has become multidimensional, and that the international balance of power is no longer gauged exclusively by traditional armament metrics, but rather by the extent to which states possess and operationalize advanced technology to serve their strategic, military, and political objectives.

This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the 2023 presidential elections in Nigeria, examining their political, historical, and demographic context. It explores the structure of the Nigerian political and electoral system as a framework for understanding patterns of political competition and electoral behavior.
The research analyzes the main political actors and candidates, as well as the outcomes of the elections, highlighting key issues related to organization, voter participation, and transparency. It further evaluates the mechanisms implemented to enhance electoral integrity, including biometric voter registration updates, international observation missions, and administrative and security measures.
Adopting a descriptive-analytical approach, the study assesses the broader objectives pursued through the elections, particularly the consolidation of democratic practices, the peaceful transfer of power, and the promotion of political and social stability.
The study concludes that while the 2023 elections represent an important step in Nigeria’s democratic trajectory, persistent structural and institutional challenges continue to shape electoral outcomes and limit the full realization of public aspirations.

This study examines the repercussions of the Ukraine war on the trajectory of Russian–Turkish bilateral relations, in light of the interests and objectives shaping the nature of this relationship on the one hand, and the divergence of positions regarding Russia’s war on Ukraine on the other. Turkey maintains strategic relations and economic and military partnerships with Russia, which has led Ankara to adopt a policy of neutrality during the war, out of concern for its interconnected interests with the Russian side. However, this does not preclude Turkey from continuing to play an active role within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), particularly as the war in Ukraine has contributed to reshaping the pattern of interaction between Russia and Turkey within an international environment characterized by escalating polarization and its impact on the balance of power. The study also highlights the central research problem concerning the extent to which both parties are capable of maintaining a strategic pattern of relations amid the ongoing international escalation and competition in the region.

The Tigray People’s Liberation Front wields significant influence in Ethiopia’s political arena. Unlike many other ethnic or nationalist organizations, it is one of the country’s most prominent political actors. Its name is associated with several pivotal events in modern Ethiopian history: it was among the first forces to demand political rights for the nation’s ethnic groups, took up arms to achieve a federal system that guarantees a degree of regional autonomy and upon assuming power, contributed to the adoption of a constitution based on decentralization. The TPLF also played a key role in driving the country’s economic renaissance over the past decades and was a major factor in paving the way for Eritrea’s independence from Ethiopia. Some parties interpreted this stance as part of a broader project aimed at unifying Tigrinya-inhabited regions across borders.
For this reason, the TPLF has remained a persistent concern for successive governments in Addis Ababa and has often been a central actor in Ethiopia’s internal political crises. The war that erupted in late 2020 was by no means the first confrontation between the TPLF and Ethiopian governments; it had engaged in numerous clashes with the authorities in Addis Ababa. The most recent conflict arose when the TPLF perceived the policies of Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed as an attempt to marginalize the organization, weaken its influence within state institutions, and move toward greater centralization of power—an approach the TPLF views as a historical root of the crises Ethiopia has experienced under both the imperial and military regimes.

The principle of peaceful rise constitutes one of the key pillars of China’s foreign policy. This concept emerged in the early twenty-first century, alongside China’s growing economic and political power. The rapid economic growth of China raised concerns among international powers that this rise could pose a threat to the international order. Consequently, China sought to present a political and intellectual framework demonstrating that its rise would be peaceful and not based on hegemony or expansion. From this perspective, the concept of peaceful rise, or peaceful development, aims to address international apprehensions by showing that China seeks to achieve its interests through cooperation with other states rather than through confrontation or conflict. The principle of peaceful rise is grounded in the idea that China’s development is closely linked to the evolution of the international system, and that any major disruption could negatively impact its developmental interests. Accordingly, China has emphasized in its foreign policy the resolution of disputes through peaceful means in accordance with international law, respect for state sovereignty, and non-interference in internal affairs. Moreover, China believes that international relations should be based on mutual cooperation and shared benefits rather than on domination or the imposition of will, which is reflected in its diplomatic discourse in international forums.

The popular movement that took place in Libya in 2011 played an important role in shaping the main features of Libyan history. Over the previous decades, the ruling regime had failed to establish political structures and systems capable of meeting the demands of the people. Therefore, when popular uprising spread across the Arab countries, Libya was influenced by them due to the oppression experienced by the Libyan people, who saw in these movements an opportunity to liberate themselves from the rule of President Muammar Gaddafi. Libyan demonstrators came out demanding reform in their country, but the path of this uprising took another form, as weapons were used. This required that the rule in Libya, which lasted for (42) years. Consequently, the state entered a challenging phase of rebuilding its institutions and reshaping its political system.

This research examines the profound transformations brought about by artificial intelligence (AI) in the nature of modern foreign policy, focusing on the tools employed and the resulting implications for state sovereignty, international relations, and the global balance of power. The rapid development of AI technologies has expanded the horizons of foreign policy instruments to include diverse areas such as big data analysis, digital diplomacy, and applications with political and strategic dimensions. This transformation has also raised profound questions regarding the concept of sovereignty, given the growing reliance on technological infrastructures and cyberspace. Additionally, the study addresses AI's impact on patterns of interaction among states and the intensification of technological competition between major powers. Ultimately, the study aims to shed light on the role of artificial intelligence as a pivotal factor in reshaping foreign policy tools and defining the features of the contemporary international order

This study aims to analyze the role of government subsidies in supporting small enterprises in Iraq by examining the most important adopted policies, their implementation mechanisms, and their contribution to enhancing economic activity and achieving sustainable development. The study is based on the hypothesis that government subsidies constitute a key instrument for supporting small enterprises; however, their effectiveness is influenced by the institutional and administrative environment in which they are implemented.
The research adopts a descriptive-analytical approach to examine the reality of government subsidies through analyzing financial, funding, and regulatory policies directed at small enterprises, relying on official data and relevant economic reports. The study addresses various forms of government support, including direct financial subsidies, concessional loans, tax exemptions, and training and capacity-building programs, highlighting their role in enabling small enterprises to sustain and grow.
The study concludes with a set of findings and recommendations, emphasizing the necessity of developing an integrated institutional framework to support small enterprises, simplifying administrative procedures, enhancing transparency in granting subsidies, and adopting more flexible and targeted policies to maximize the impact of government subsidies and achieve economic development goals in Iraq.

The Korean Peninsula represents a vital national security zone for the People's Republic of China due to its history, geographical location, long shared border of 1,283.5 kilometers, and proximity to Russia and Japan—two of China's traditional rivals. Historically, the Korean Peninsula has been recognized as a target, an arena of conflict, and an invasion corridor among its powerful neighbors: China, Russia, Mongolia, and Japan. Therefore, Chinese interest in the Korean Peninsula predates American interest, which emerged later with the initial attempt to direct the American merchant ship "Sherman" to the Korean coast in 1866. However, the Koreans managed to burn the ship, and such American attempts continued until World War II, which eventually enabled the United States to control South Korea, while the Soviet Union and China became the primary supporters of North Korea.
Following its participation in the 1953 armistice agreement, China became the dominant influence on North Korea through its military support during the Korean War, establishing it as a strategic ally standing against American expansion in the peninsula. Consequently, Sino-American hostility persisted until the escalation of Sino-Soviet disputes and the Soviet Union's openness to the United States prompted China to seek rapprochement as well. This shift culminated in the 1972 Beijing Summit, which played a pivotal role in the rapprochement between the two Koreas—a dynamic that this research seeks to explain.

This study examines the impact of transformations in the new international order on fragile states, particularly in the context of the structural and normative shifts that have characterized global politics since the end of the Cold War. These transformations have reshaped the nature of international interactions and redefined the distribution of power within the global system.
The research argues that fragile states have been disproportionately affected by these changes due to structural imbalances in power, the erosion of state sovereignty, and the expanding influence of non-state actors. Additionally, the increasing frequency of international interventions—often justified under security and humanitarian frameworks—has further intensified the vulnerability of these states.
The study highlights how these dynamics have contributed to deepening political instability, economic weakness, and social fragmentation within fragile states, making them more susceptible to external influence and entanglement in regional and international conflicts.
It concludes that addressing fragility requires a more balanced international approach that respects state sovereignty, strengthens institutional capacity, and limits exploitative external interventions within the evolving structure of the global order

This research examines the fields of cooperation between Turkey and the BRICS countries from 2006 to 2026 by analyzing the evolution of political, economic, cultural, and developmental cooperation between the two sides. The study traces the development of official cooperation frameworks, bilateral and multilateral agreements, and coordination mechanisms adopted by Turkey in its relations with individual BRICS countries as well as with the group as a whole. It highlights political cooperation based on consultation and exchange of views, economic cooperation focused on trade, investment, and energy, and cultural and developmental cooperation as instruments for strengthening mutual understanding and long-term partnerships. The study concludes that cooperation between Turkey and the BRICS has expanded gradually and systematically throughout the study period, reflecting a pragmatic, interest-based approach that emphasizes functional cooperation rather than power balances or geopolitical considerations

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This article aims to provide a critical review of the book *An Introduction to Political Science*, published by the Center for Civilization Studies and Research. The book represents a foundational attempt to move beyond the Western-centric approach that dominates the field of political science in Arab academia, by proposing a comparative civilizational perspective that re-evaluates Islamic historical and conceptual experience. The review discusses the book’s epistemological foundations, analyzes its approach to the concepts of the state and international relations, and concludes with an objective assessment of its significance and its methodological and research challenges.