Magazine of historical studies and archaeology

Since the early historical periods, the Arabian Peninsula witnessed continuous human activity and settlement, as it was inhabited by various peoples from around 4000 B.C. Among these groups were the Arabs, whose name was first attested in the Assyrian inscriptions of 852 B.C. This study sheds light on hunting among the Arabs as a central activity closely tied to their livelihood, representing a primary means of securing food and ensuring survival. The research highlights the development of hunting tools and techniques used by the Arabs, demonstrating how environmental challenges-such as the retreat of glaciers and the consequent decline in animal resources-pushed them to invent diverse and effective methods and strategies for hunting, thereby sustaining their existence and way of life.

Perdiccas represents a model of the Macedonian commander whose political identity was shaped by his military experience under Alexander the Great Rising from the Macedonian aristocracy he advanced through the ranks during the Asian campaigns playing a significant role in the operations that consolidated Macedonian control over Anatolia including the Siege of Halicarnassus the Battle of Issus and the Battle of Gaugamela These military achievements elevated his standing within the high command and positioned him for political prominence After Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, Perdiccas emerged as a central figure in the succession crisis, assuming the regency and deriving legitimacy from both the army and his proximity to the late king In his effort to strengthen his authority, he adopted dynastic marriage politics, seeking to link effective power with royal legitimacy through alliance with the Argead house. This strategy, however, alarmed rival commanders and accelerated divisions among them, contributing to the outbreak of the Wars of the Successors Perdiccas’ career thus illustrates the close interaction between military authority and political ambition during the transformation from a unified empire to a system shaped by competing Hellenistic power

The Kingdom of Pergamon was one of the prominent political and cultural kingdoms that arose in Asia Minor during the Hellenistic period. It constituted a unique experience in ancient history, combining military power and diplomatic acumen with cultural creativity and architectural prosperity. Although Pergamon did not emerge as an independent kingdom until the beginning of the third century BC, the roots that paved the way for this kingdom go back centuries earlier, especially since the fifth century BC, when the region was under Persian control within its western provinces. It later became part of the ongoing conflicts between the great powers: the Achaemenids, the Greeks, and then the Macedonians led by Alexander the Great and his successors.

This topic explores the early origins of art in primitive societies, which sought to maintain continuity for survival and adopted it as a means to achieve this. However, art evolved with the development of humanity and the diversification of its spiritual and aesthetic needs. Humans were not content with merely crafting tools for utilitarian purposes, but also sought to adorn them with various colors and decorations to satisfy their visual appetite. From this arose the human instinct for beauty, and thus art is considered a fundamental element in the formation of human civilization.

This research examines The Early Beginnings of Mummification in Ancient Egyptian Civilization, as it was closely associated with the ancient Egyptians’ belief in resurrection and eternal life. The preservation of the deceased’s body constituted an essential element in funerary rituals and religious beliefs.

The study adopts a historical and analytical approach through the examination of historical texts and archaeological sources related to mummification, in addition to benefiting from modern studies that addressed the medical and religious aspects of this phenomenon. The study reveals that mummification was not merely a method of preserving the body; rather, it represented an integrated religious system that reflected the ancient Egyptian perception of the afterlife. It also demonstrated the scientific advancement achieved by the ancient Egyptians in the fields of medicine, anatomy, and the use of natural chemical substances.

Furthermore, the research discusses selected examples of royal mummies whose discovery contributed to providing important historical information about the kings of ancient Egypt. These discoveries also illustrated the development of mummification techniques and their variation according to ruling dynasties and social status. The study concludes that the art of mummification is considered one of the most significant civilizational achievements of ancient Egypt due to its religious, scientific, and artistic dimensions, as well as its role in enriching historical and archaeological studies related to ancient Egyptian civilization.

Themistocles is one of the most prominent Greek leaders. He took over the leadership of Athens during the most dangerous period in its history, and thanks to his political acumen and leadership skills, he was able to lay the foundations for its maritime renaissance, which not only saved Athens but also saved the unity of the entire country of Greece from the Achaemenid threat. Thanks to his victory in the Battle of Salamis, he gained great fame throughout the country, to the point that he was nicknamed the national hero and the savior of Athens.

The aristocratic class found in Themistocles’ heroism and political program a danger that threatened their interests, so they described him as arrogant and accused him of several charges and agreed to exile him without trial in order to humiliate him and diminish his power. They were not satisfied with that, but conspired to kill him on charges of treason and conspiracy with the Achaemenids. When his defenses did not find a response among the Athenians, he decided to flee as a refugee and seek refuge with the Achaemenid king Artaxerxes I (465-424 BC).

The conjugational prefixes in the Sumerian language constitute essential markers that characterize the full verbal chain, and their occurrence varies according to the syntactic and semantic needs of the sentence. Multiple conjugational elements may appear together within a single verbal phrase, particularly the prefix i₃, which may combine with ba to form i₃-ba, realized phonetically as imma, or with bi₂ to form i₃-bi₂, which is realized as immi.

Consequently, scholars have proposed various interpretations for these compound forms—interpretations that have often moved away from recognizing i₃-ba and i₃-bi₂ themselves. In reality, however, these forms represent the original conjugational prefixes im-ma and im-mi. Thus, the phenomenon in question is best understood as a phonological development of the two prefixes.

This will be demonstrated through evidence drawn from verbal transitivity, the appearance of post-positional (ventive) infixes, and the number of participants involved in the verbal action. These features will be shown clearly in verbal constructions containing the conjugational prefixes im-ma and im-mi.

The agreement of a number of social jewels in Egyptian society, represented by the priesthood's contempt for wealth, power, judicial corruption and the spread of administrative corruption Bribery, labor abuse, and grave robbery, all of which impose moral standards on many members of Kant's society, are among the most important factors in the collapse The Egyptian Empire includes the subject of the impact of social and economic factors and the effect on the collapse of the ancient Egyptian Empire (1580 BC) until (1085 AH) and through the exposure of individuals of society to exploitation and isolation from the upper and middle classes, and suffering from limited living conditions and limited opportunities represents dominance The greatest of the settlements in the old Egyptian society.

The Kingdom of Amurru was one of the important kingdoms in Syria during the second millennium BC. Its geographical location between ancient Egypt and the Hittite Empire necessitated a flexible policy. Its kings relied on shifting alliances and diplomatic maneuvering to ensure their survival. This approach began with King Abdi-Ashir and continued with King Aziru, reaching King Shaush-Jamua. Amurru benefited from periods of peace between major powers to achieve economic and commercial prosperity. It also established strong relations with coastal kingdoms such as Ugarit, Byblos, and Sidon. Its location made it an important center for trade between East and West. However, this political flexibility made it vulnerable to international pressures and fluctuations. Thus, Amurru represented a model of middle-income entities that relied on diplomacy rather than force. Ultimately, it was affected by the decline of major powers and the rise of Assyrian influence in the region. Based on this premise, the aim of this research is to study the political developments of the Kingdom of Amurru from its inception until the end of King Shaush-Jamua's reign, focusing on its relations with Egypt, the Hittites, and Ugarit. Byblos, and an analysis of historical documents and diplomatic treaties that reveal the nature of these relations, and their impact on shaping the political map of Syria during the second millennium BC.

The intelligence system was of paramount importance in the Neo-Assyrian period (911-612 B.C). It was widespread throughout the Assyrian Empire and in enemy cities, and its personnel were known as scouts, reconnaissance soldiers, or scouting hunters. These scouts were deployed in enemy territories and were headed by the king, a provincial governor, or their representatives. They maintained constant contact with army commanders to receive orders and instructions and were employed in both war and peacetime. They were extremely careful and discreet in ensuring the security of their military units and in gathering as much information as possible about the enemy to help them avoid dangers and formulate military plans. Assyrian spies carried sensitive messages between kings and their governors. These spies were highly trusted individuals who had to be honest, courageous, and loyal. They were trained in the art of delivering military messages between leaders and ensuring that the messages were not falsified during transmission.

Existential anxiety represents a prominent intellectual and literary phenomenon in ancient Mesopotamian texts, where the Sumerians and Babylonians expressed profound questions about fate, death, the meaning of life, and the limits of human existence through myths, epics, proverbs, and hymns. This anxiety emerged within a cultural context marked by the harshness of nature, the unpredictability of life, and the dominance of divine powers that controlled human destiny without granting full understanding of their will. Literarily, it manifested through recurring symbols such as death, darkness, journey, and loss, as well as melancholic language, a pessimistic tone, open-ended conclusions, and internal dialogues and reflections conveying human helplessness in the face of mortality and the absence of immortality. The Epic of Gilgamesh exemplifies this anxiety through the hero’s quest for immortality and his ultimate failure. Unlike modern existential anxiety, often linked to the absence of God, Mesopotamian existential concern arose amid the presence and absolute power of deities, rendering literary texts instruments for contemplating human fragility and seeking the meaning of life amid uncertainty.

Throughout Their Long History, Assyrian Kings Focused on Expanding Their Empires. The Ninth Assyrian King, a Century before his Reign, undertook a Period of Rebuilding and Reconstructing the Kingdom, which had Weakened During the Final years of Tiglath-Pileser I's Rule (1115-1077 BC). Among The Territories Reconquered by The Assyrian Kings was Zamua, a Strategically Important Political and Cultural link between The Plains of Mesopotamia. Its Geographical location, which Extended into The Northeastern Regions of Mesopotamia, contributed to its Military lines between The Assyrians and The Peoples of the Zagros Mountains, Giving its History a Distinctive Military, Military and Economic Character. Therefore, our Study, titled "Zamua (Sulaymaniyah) in Light of Neo -Assyrian Texts (911-612 BCE) " is Relevant to This Study. The Importance of Studying Zamua (Sulaymaniyah) is Highlighted by its Mention in Assyrian Texts, including Annals and Accounts of Campaigns by Prominent Figures, Particularly During the Reigns of Kings Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 BC) and his Son Shalmaneser (858-824 BC), as Well as The Correspondence between its Rulers and The Assyrian kings, The Study can be Structured Around the History of Communication, The location of Zamua, and two main sections:

Section One: Zamua in Light of Assyrian Texts.

Section Two: The Province of Zamua: A Study of its Social and Military Structure.

The research concludes with a summary of the most important findings and includes an appendix with a map of the cities of Zamua and a list of Arabic and foreign sources. However, the study's primary significance lies in the following:

Grayson, A. K, 1996, The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia Assyrian Period, Toronto, Vol.3, (Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC II (858-745 BC)).
The researcher Grayson’s book included Texts from the Assyrian Royal annals, which enabled him to know the number and course of the military campaigns against Zamua.

Lanfranchi, G. and Parpola, S., 1990, the correspondence of Sargon 11, Finland, SAA. VOl.5, part.11(letters from the Northern and Northeastern Provinces).
The researcher Lanfranchi's book included correspondence between the Assyrian King Sargon II (721-705 BC) and the rulers of Zamua.

• Al-Qarahdaghi, Rafida Abdullah Abdul Samad, 2008, PhD dissertation, (Sulaimaniyah, College of Humanities).

The cuneiform texts discovered in Mesopotamia have provided us with abundant information about all political, economic, urban and religious aspects of the Third Dynasty of Ur (2112-2004 BC), in which five kings ruled for nearly a century. Because cuneiform texts are among the most important sources of our information about the achievements of the kings of this dynasty, we borrowed three unknown Sumerian texts from the Iraqi Museum in Baghdad, dated by month and year. After careful study, it became clear that they date back to the reign of King Shu-Sin and King Abi-Sin, based on the historical texts they contain. The first text included an interest-bearing loan for cultivated land, while the second text included the receipt of silver and wool in the presence of witnesses, and the third text included expenses consisting of sheep, goats, and a pig distributed as shares among a group of people.

This study highlights the critical role of copper trade in the economic and cultural relations between Dilmun and Mesopotamia during the third millennium BCE. Owing to its strategic location, Dilmun acted as a key intermediary between copper-producing Magan (modern Oman) and metal-deficient Mesopotamia, contributing significantly to regional trade networks.

Sumerian and Akkadian texts consistently identify Dilmun as a source of copper and a land of prosperity and ritual purity. Archaeological evidence, such as copper-smelting facilities, indicates that Dilmun engaged not only in trade but also in copper processing and redistribution.

Advancements in maritime technology enabled sustained Gulf trade, facilitating the flow of goods and fostering the exchange of metallurgical knowledge, nautical skills, and administrative practices. Thus, copper trade served as a foundation for both economic integration and cultural interaction in the ancient Near East.

This study examines the personality of Emperor Titus Flavius Vespasian, who was born in a modest neighborhood in 39 AD and ruled the Roman Empire between 79 and 81 A.D. The origins of this emperor's family are unknown, as members of the family did not appear prominently in politics until 69 A.D, when Vespasian seized control of Rome and ruled the Roman Empire under the name "Flavian Family," which continued to rule from 69 to 96 A.D.

Religon holds great importance in the lives of peoples since ancient times ,especially the peoples for whom religion was a source and essential basis for all that happens in their public and private lives ,thus ,they turned in every way to satisfy these gods by various means ,in addition to drawing close to them through various acts of worship and prayers, therefore ,these acts of worship were paired with various sacrifices and offerings , the ancient Greek's are not excluded from this principle , as we find them worshipping many different gods , until these worships became important features of their private and public lives .many gods are counts among the important ones , and among the deities helctild in high esteem among them , especially the god Apollo for whom temples were built , including the temple of Delphi which was considered throne of aisa of Delphi . festivals were held for him every four years , Apollo was one of the deities whose functions and qualities multiplied due to the multiplicity of his dutis among them , which were significantly connected to land and agriculture.

The city of Akre, which occupies an important position due to its geographical location and its diverse tourism potential in all its aspects, is considered a significant case in the modern era. Interest in tourism has become evident across all societies, regardless of their social patterns. The authorities in the Kurdistan Region have paid great attention to the tourism sector due to its impact on comprehensive development. The Kurdistan Region of Iraq is distinguished by its geographical location in the region and the world, as well as its history and the successive civilizations it has witnessed since the earliest human settlements in the ancient Near East.

This wall relief was discovered in the North Palace of the city of Nineveh. It consists of six wall panels, arranged in two groups of three on each side, forming frieze-like compositions. The panels depict a scene related to Ashurbanipal’s fifth military campaign against the land of Elam. The reliefs originally adorned the walls of Room (37) in the South-West Palace of King Sennacherib and portray a battle scene near the Ulai River, located on the western side of the entrance, as well as the death of the Elamite king Teumman.

During our PhD research, we identified a distinct economic text among the corpus of texts assigned to us. As all the texts were of unknown origin, the researcher relied on an analysis of the text's formal features, cuneiform script, content, and historical context to determine its date.

The text dates to the early Old Babylonian period, specifically to the thirty-third year of the reign of King Išbi-Erra, the founder of the Dynasty of Isin.

Preserved in the Iraq Museum under number ( IM 62890), the text addresses an economic matter pertaining to leather. Notably, its writing style exhibits a predominantly Sumerian character, employing a greater number of Sumerian vocabulary and lexemes than Akkadian—a distinctive feature of texts from this period.

The lack of established document maintenance and restoration lines, and the absence of restoration work on existing items in development and restoration centers, hinders the detailed implementation of procedures for protecting manuscripts from various forms of damage. While there are several steps involved in the successful completion of restoration operations, these are limited to documents that are never completely immune to damage. This necessitates specialized work to operate these centers, including the maintenance of specialized storage facilities. These facilities should be designed and developed in various ways. This research aims to highlight the importance of storage facilities and their types, focusing on the methods used to prepare them at the Al-Fadl Center for the Preservation of Written and Archival Heritage.

This research deals with some names of villages in the rural areas and countryside of Baghdad that have been forgotten since the Abbasid era. It attempts to identify some of the current archaeological sites and mounds in the vicinity of Baghdad and its four directions by referring to cuneiform, Hebrew, and Arabic historical, geographical, and literary texts that sometimes retain the same original form or show a relative similarity or slight modification from the original and ancient form, in order to verify and match them.

This research, entitled: The History of Milk Use and Dairy Products in Mesopotamia through Written and Photographic Documents, follows one of the countless current practices and traditions, to understand its origins and roots in the civilization of Mesopotamia and other civilizations, given the great importance of this topic in human life in terms of food and the art of diversifying food through early knowledge of the benefits of milk and the other food products it produces, he also knew some treatments for his diseases by adding other substances to milk, with an emphasis on the issue of hygiene, as evidenced by some archaeological finds and other discovered cultural materials, including cuneiform texts about mythological legends and documented heroic epics, and illustrated scenes on cylinder seals that we have reviewed.

The research concluded that most of what we discussed is still used today with some development, whether in terms of the tools and containers used, or in the method of work itself. The whole process was considered an integral part of a civilizational revolution that took place in the Neolithic period in the Eurasian steppe region and several distant places in North Africa and western parts of Asia, especially Mesopotamia, starting from the middle of the seventh millennium BC in the northern regions, then in the central and southern regions and cities of the country, which were famous for the early discoveries, inventions, innovations and developments that included all aspects of daily life and other types of sciences in which the Mesopotamians excelled, thus defying their environment known for its harshness.

This study examines the goddess Nanshe in Mesopotamia through cuneiform texts, highlighting her role as a significant deity who combined religious, social, and economic functions within Sumerian society. The research aims to identify the nature of her role, clarify her position within the Sumerian pantheon, and analyze her intellectual and cultural significance within the Mesopotamian religious framework.

The study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach by examining relevant cuneiform texts and analyzing their content, supported by both Arabic and foreign sources, as well as academic theses and dissertations related to ancient Mesopotamian religion. The research is structured into three main sections: the origin and attributes of the goddess Nanshe, the analysis of cuneiform texts in which she is mentioned, and her religious, social, and economic roles in Sumerian society.

The study concludes that Nanshe was not merely a deity with a limited religious function, but rather a central figure associated with social justice, particularly in protecting vulnerable groups such as widows and orphans. In addition, her connection with water resources and fisheries reflects the environmental and economic conditions of southern Mesopotamia. The research also demonstrates that temples dedicated to Nanshe played an important economic role in resource management, indicating the strong interrelationship between religion and society in ancient Mesopotamia.