Magazine of historical studies and archaeology

The land of Andalusia went through several political stages during the rule of the Muslims, and the stage of the rule of the Almoravids was one of those stages. The research dealt with the impact of the loyalties during that stage from the time the Almoravids set foot on the land of Andalusia until they were able to rule that country for a period of time that exceeded half a century.

Zayn ibn Ibraaheem ibn Muhammad al-Masri, known as Ibn Nujaim. He was born in Cairo in 926 AH / 1519 AD, and since his youth he has devoted himself to the pursuit of science. It helps him to study with sharp intelligence and a great ability to memorize. In the year 923 AH / 1517 AD, his country Egypt was subjected to a military occupation by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I, and one of the results of this occupation was that Egypt lost its independence and since then it has become just an Ottoman province.

This was by no means normal. Egypt has since lost its international statu s as a countr that has imposed control over large swathes of the country, both in Asia and Africa. As a result of this, Egypt lost the status it had enjoyed, especially after the transfer of the headquarters of the caliphs of Bani al-Abbas to Egypt, as well as the provision of protection and services to the Two Holy Mosques..

This research critically examines and analyzes the positions of the Orientalist Robert Spencer on the historical conflict between the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him and his household) and the Quraysh, as presented in his book The History of Jihad. It aims to uncover the contradictions inherent in the methodology he employed and the inconsistencies contained within his arguments by comparing his propositions and analyses with authentic Islamic sources.

The central problem of the research lies in the methodological contradiction upon which Robert Spencer's work is based. In his initial proposition, he rejects the historical credibility of Islamic sources, even describing them as such, only to subsequently and selectively refer back to them. He extracts events and narratives from these very sources to use as tools for proving his preconceived hypotheses about Islam and early Islamic history. This renders his reading closer to ideological discourse than to objective historical research.

This study follows the chronological development of the Quraysh's conflict with the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him and his household) through five main stages: starting from the Meccan period, passing through the incidents at Nakhlah and Badr, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, and concluding with the Conquest of Mecca. At each stage of the research, the author presents the narrative offered by Robert Spencer and then subjects it to critique and analysis, assessing its consistency with the established ethical principles of the Prophet Muhammad and with the historical context. The study also highlights the contemporary political and intellectual context within which this discourse operates and its connection to some currents of neo-Orientalist discourse.

The research concludes that Robert Spencer's reading suffers from several profound methodological issues, the most prominent of which are: selectivity in choosing narratives, extracting parts of events from their contexts, focusing on weak reports, and the direct projection of contemporary political concepts onto a different historical reality. In contrast, a careful examination of the sources using Islamic critical tools reveals a more balanced picture of conflict management—a picture based on strategic wisdom, steadfast adherence to ethical principles, political flexibility, which ultimately resulted in achieving historical interests and successful social integration.

The concept of social strata and discussions about their ranks was present and significant among Arab Muslims, leading to the creation of scholarly works on the subject, which received attention and care from them. The emergence of these works was connected with efforts to document the biographies of the Messenger of Allah, peace be upon him, as well as to know the Companions and the Followers during that period. These works began to develop at the start of the second century AH, when a type of Hadith criticism called 'Jarh and Ta'dil' emerged. Over time, its scope broadened beyond Hadith alone, encompassing various sciences and serving them in a way that can be said to form a record of different activities, whether scientific, cultural, or religious. Among the most famous books of biography in the third century AH is 'Kitab al-Tabaqat' by Ibn Saad, which contains important, extensive, and detailed information, and its author was recognised by Hadith scholars. Moreover, he drew information from diverse sources and presented original ideas. This research aims to highlight this significant scholarly achievement.

The Nasrid dynasty (Banu Nasr) was founded after the decline of the Almohad Caliphate and its defeat at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 609 AH/1212 CE, which marked the beginning of the Almohads' downfall due to weakened unity and morale, and the cessation of financial support for the soldiers. The Nasrid rule lasted from 635 to 897 AH/1238 to 1492 CE. Their state was known as Granada, a name said to derive from its abundance of pomegranate orchards or its beauty. Another explanation is that it resembled a pomegranate split between two hills. It was also called the Damascus of Andalusia for its beauty and pure air. There is an opinion that the origin of the name is Gothic, where the word “Ghar” was added to an old name, “Nata,” so it became “Granada.” They were also called Banu Nasr and Banu al-Ahmar, in reference to the founder of the state, Muhammad ibn Yusuf, who was given allegiance in the year 629 AH / 1232 AD. They are attributed in their origin to Saad ibn Ubadah, the master of the Ansar, may God be pleased with him.

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The subject of administrative and financial audit is one of the most important subjects due to its direct connection to the state on the one hand and its institutions on the other, In order for states to properly control their administrative and financial audit, and in accordance with specific audit, they must directly and indirectly monitor their institutions and the employees in charge of them, in a way that guarantees the accurate performance of their duties, The goal of this is to create a strong state from within, which can subsequently impose its tight control over all parts of its territory in a sound and firm manner, and make it ready to face external challenges, whatever their form and type.

This research examines the impact of religious motivations on the development of Arab-Islamic civilization up to the end of the Umayyad era. Since the advent of Islam with the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), it marked a major turning point in Arab history, transforming them from a state of tribal fragmentation to a religious and political unity based on monotheism, justice, and equality. Islamic teachings contributed to organizing social life, consolidating moral values, and building a disciplined society governed by Islamic law.

During the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, particularly Umar ibn al-Khattab, religious motivations took on a practical dimension in the Islamic conquests aimed at spreading the message. This led to the expansion of the state and the interaction of Muslims with diverse civilizations, resulting in cultural, administrative, and scientific exchange that enriched the nascent civilization.

In the Umayyad era, especially during the reign of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, religious motivations manifested in the consolidation of Islamic identity through the Arabization of the administrative offices, the minting of Islamic currency, and the development of administrative systems. Furthermore, there was a focus on urban development, including the construction of mosques and major infrastructure projects, which strengthened the state's cultural character. Thus, it can be said that religious motives were the main driving force behind the establishment, expansion, and organization of the Islamic state and its institutions, and contributed directly to building an integrated Arab-Islamic civilization until the end of the Umayyad era in 132 AH / 750 AD.

During the Sulayhid State (439-532 AH / 1037-1138 CE), Yemen was distinguished by political unity for the first time in its history, after having been divided into several tribal, political, and sectarian states. The Da'i and King Ali ibn Muhammad al-Sulayhi (439-459 AH / 1037-1067 CE) was able to establish his Sulayhid State and rule all of Yemen under his banner. Despite his adherence to the Ismaili sect and ruling Yemen according to it, he granted religious and sectarian freedom to its people without forcing them to adopt his doctrine. Yemen experienced a kind of peaceful coexistence between different sects, which was reflected in other aspects of social life, such as holidays, celebrations, customs, and traditions. Furthermore, the role of women became prominent during this period in political, social, and economic spheres.

The family is considered the primary framework within which social relations take shape in the Maghreb, as it represents the foundation of stability and cohesion in society. Family formation has been closely linked to marriage, which has been governed by religious and social regulations aimed at ensuring a balanced family relationship. Parents have also borne responsibility for raising and supporting children, reflecting the family’s educational and social roles. Forms of cooperation and mutual support within the family have contributed to strengthening values of solidarity. This highlights the family’s central role in preserving social balance and continuity.

Objectives: To identify the centers of scientific life that flourished in the city of Ras al-Ain, the scientific achievements of its scholars, and those who came to it during the seventh century AH.

Methodology: Relying on authentic historical sources, using the investigative approach, and analyzing the research results objectively, adhering to the spatial and temporal framework of the study.

Results: The research revealed care for Sharia sciences, the Arabic language and its literature, history, and rational sciences. It was shown that the efforts of the scholars were not limited to seeking and disseminating knowledge, but they excelled in authorship and scientific dialogues. It became clear that scientific life originated from mosques, schools, scholars, houses, khanqahs, churches, and marketplaces. The scientific achievements in Ras al-Ain were not limited to its scholars only; scholars came from the Jazira al-Furat, the Levant, Iraq, Egypt, and Andalusia. The sciences grew and flourished until Ras al-Ain became a destination for scholars from other countries to study under its sheikhs and gain strong chains of transmission. It was evident that Islam was the most prominent factor in the development of scientific life; it called for learning and teaching and considered seeking knowledge an obligation. Muslims responded to this and explored almost all branches and arts of knowledge. Additionally, the state’s patronage of science and scholars contributed to this. Muslims allowed followers of other religions to interact with them and retain their religions and cultures; they used churches and monasteries as scientific forums to spread their cultures. It became clear that religious tolerance was one of the most prominent features of Arab-Islamic civilization.

The study of the social aspects of Islamic civilizations is of paramount importance for understanding their comprehensive development. Social life has always been closely intertwined with the political and economic life of any state or emirate in the Islamic world. This research sheds light on a specific facet of social life: amusement games and sports in the Samanid and Ghaznavid Emirates. It highlights the types of sports prevalent in both emirates, the extent to which the geographical environment influenced the diversity of these sports, and the points of similarity between them. The primary focus of this research includes an overview of the Samanid and Ghaznavid Emirates, alongside an exploration of hunting games, horse riding, polo (Chogan), and equestrian fantasy games (Al-Khayal), illustrating the significant interest that the rulers of both emirates took in these activities.

Following the fall of the Amirid state and the end of the Umayyad Caliphate in al-Andalus in 422 AH/1031 AD, al-Andalus entered a period of political fragmentation known as the era of the Taifa kingdoms (484-422 AH/ 1091-1031AD). The country fragmented into small states, each ruled by an emir or governor, most of whom were originally ministers, military commanders, or city governors who exploited the instability to establish their own independent rule.

This era was characterized by numerous divisions and internal conflicts among the Taifa kings, as each ruler sought to expand his influence and consolidate his power. They clashed amongst themselves, and the wars drained their military and economic resources. Despite the manifestations of luxury and cultural prosperity witnessed by some of the small states, their political and military weakness led to an increase in the influence of the Christian kingdoms in the north, which exploited their division and controlled large parts of the country. Historians have described this era as a stage of weakness and collapse of political unity in Andalusia, where the common interest disappeared and was replaced by personal rivalries and individual ambitions, which paved the way for the fall of many Andalusian cities and the end of this stage with the entry of the Almoravids in the year 484AH/ 1091AD .

The Sultan's economic decisions constituted oni of thi mostt importont instruments of governance in the medieval Islamic state, given their direct impact on state stability, urban development, and the satisfaction or unrest of the populace. In the Hafsid state, these decisions emerged as a resuolt of a coumplex inteirplay betwen the Sultan's authority and the consultative body, which included ministers, scribes, natural disasters, resource fluctuations, and internal and external political and military pressures ,The importance of economic consultation was evident in determining the effectiveness of the Sultan's decisions. It contributed to regulating tax collection, organizing resources, addressing famines, and improving the efficiency of public finance management. Conversely, periods in which consultation was absent or corrupted during major economic and social crises led to urban disruption and increased internal strife, reflecting the direct relationship between the effectiveness of consultation and state stability. This research will examine the economic decision-making of the Hafsid dynasty by analyzing the role of economic counsel in addressing crises, including famines, price hikes, and resource shortages. The study focuses on how sultans consulted their ministers, scribes, jurists, and judges in managing financial affairs and regulating markets, from the Hafsid era untile the end of the 8th centurey AH. Accordingly, the research will be divided into two sections. The first section will define the meaning of consultation linguistically and technically, its importance in thie Huoly Quran and the Sunah, ande the essential qualities required of a decision-maker. The second section will discuss the establishment of the Hafsid state, the role of consultation for its sultans during periods of strength and weakness, and its impact on confronting economic disasters, presenting specific examples of economic decisions made by the Hafsid sultans.

This research aims to conduct a comparative study of Ibn Sina's two books, *Al-Mujaz fi al-Tibb* (The Concise Book on Medicine) and *Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb* (The Canon of Medicine), by analyzing their methodology, content, and purpose. The study highlights the similarities in their general structure and medical topics, noting that both books rely on the theoretical foundations of medicine, linking causes to symptoms and methods of treatment, thus reflecting Ibn Sina's unified medical vision. The research also examines the differences in the arrangement and organization of information, emphasizing the influence of educational and scientific aims on the presentation style, ranging from concise to detailed. The study concludes that the methodological differences between the two books do not represent a scientific contradiction, but rather reflect the flexibility of Ibn Sina's thought and his ability to adapt medical knowledge to various objectives. This underscores the scientific and methodological value of his medical works and their importance in the history of Islamic medicine.

Kurdish scientific institutions in the Islamic East were centered around mosques, religious schools, and kuttabs. Their scholars contributed to spreading knowledge and influenced Islamic civilization as scholars of language, history, and jurisprudence, with a focus on Sharia knowledge and the Arabic language to preserve the integrated Kurdish Islamic identity and heritage.

The idea behind this title is to analyze the divine gifts historically from the history of his ancestors and how the divine gifts manifested in the personality of the Prophet Muhammad? And what was the effect of the divine gifts that God singled him out with in shaping the historical events of the Islamic call and its development?

Research Objectives:

This research aims to provide an analytical reading of the topic of divine gifts, by highlighting the gifts bestowed upon the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). The research begins by clarifying the concept of prophetic gifts, such as infallibility, intercession, the Night Journey and Ascension (Isra and Mi'raj), and the Holy Quran as the greatest and most enduring miracle, in addition to the legislative and cosmic characteristics that distinguished his blessed personality. The research also attempts to connect these gifts to their historical context, explaining how they were reflected in the reality of the Islamic call at its various stages, and how they contributed to establishing the Prophet's (peace and blessings be upon him) position in the hearts of believers and in building a comprehensive human and civilizational model.

The study concludes that the divine gifts bestowed upon the unlettered Prophet are not a passing historical event, but rather an existential and civilizational transformation, as the gifts of God Almighty came together in him to be the culmination of heavenly messages, and a source of guidance for humanity throughout the ages.

These were comprehensive signs confirming the truth of his prophethood and highlighting his high standing with God Almighty. These gifts encompassed multiple aspects: spiritual, represented by the revelation of the Quran; tangible, manifested in miracles; and social and political, represented by victory and empowerment. The study demonstrated that these divine gifts were not limited to the era of prophethood, but rather their impact continued throughout history, through the preservation of the Quran and the spread of Islam. Thus, it becomes clear that studying the history of divine gifts reveals the profound connection between divine support and the message of Muhammad (peace be upon him), strengthens faith in the message of the Seal of the Prophets (peace be upon him), and invites us to draw lessons for our contemporary reality. Analysis of Prophetic Gifts: Uncovering the most important gifts with which God singled out His Seal of the Prophets, Muhammad (peace be upon him), in terms of doctrine, spirituality, and legislation. Connection to History: Examining the impact of these gifts on the historical reality of the Islamic call during the Meccan and Medinan periods.

Research questions:

What are the most prominent divine gifts that God bestowed upon the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him)? How were these gifts manifested in the spiritual and doctrinal dimension of the Prophet's (peace and blessings be upon him) personality? What was the impact of the legislative gifts (such as the Quran, the Sunnah, and the finality of prophethood) in establishing the universality of the Islamic message? How were the meanings of these gifts reflected in the historical events of the Prophet's biography at its various stages?

This study examines the integration of colloquial dialect in historical writing during the Mamluk era, focusing on its evolution from limited use in earlier Islamic sources to broader application in later historiography. Initially, historical texts were composed strictly in Classical Arabic, with only minor appearances of popular expressions such as proverbs. However, during the Mamluk period, social and cultural transformations influenced historiographical language, leading to a growing inclusion of colloquial phrases, particularly in narratives reflecting daily life and public opinion.

Special emphasis is placed on Ibn Iyas, a key figure of late Mamluk historiography, whose work Bada'i al-Zuhur fi Waqa'i al-Duhur blended Classical Arabic with colloquial language. His distinctive style allowed for vivid depictions of social dynamics through dialogues and satire, revealing both public sentiment and personal perspective. His writing provided a detailed and accessible account of societal realities, fostering closer engagement with readers.

The study concludes that the deliberate use of colloquial dialect by historians such as Ibn Iyas represents a significant methodological and cultural shift. This linguistic hybridity enhanced the communicative function of historical texts and broadened their accessibility, offering modern researchers valuable insights into Mamluk society through both formal narrative and spoken vernacular.

Shaqiq al-Alami, also known as Abu Ali ibn Ibrahim al-Balkhi (194-810 AH), is considered one of the most prominent figures of early asceticism and spiritual practice in Khorasan. He was among the figures who contributed to shaping the early features of spiritual experience in the Islamic world. Shaqiq hailed from the city of Balkh in Khorasan, a major center of learning and asceticism during the Abbasid era. He grew up in a commercial environment and was initially a wealthy poet before turning to the path of asceticism after a profound incident during a trading journey. According to accounts, he realized the true meaning of reliance on God and abandoning dependence on material means.

This research aims to introduce Shaqiq al-Balkhi, examining his lineage, upbringing, and scholarly environment in Balkh and Khorasan. It highlights his role in the development of early asceticism and piety during the Abbasid era, analyzing the factors that influenced his ascetic thought and his transition from trade to worship. The research also explores his most important spiritual concepts, such as reliance on God, sincerity of intention, self-examination, and fear of God. Furthermore, it examines his relationship with prominent figures of his time, such as Ibrahim ibn Adham and Abdullah ibn al-Mubarak, and the extent of their influence on him and vice versa. This study examines the presence of Shaqiq al-Balkhi in biographical dictionaries and assesses the accuracy of accounts related to him. It demonstrates his influence on the Khorasani school of Sufism and on subsequent generations of ascetics and Sufis. The study also involves collecting and analyzing texts attributed to him from primary sources such as *Hilyat al-Awliya*, *Sifat al-Safwa*, and *al-Zuhd al-Kabir*. Furthermore, it evaluates Shaqiq al-Balkhi's contributions to ethical thought, identifies the key features of his methodology, highlights his prominent position in Islamic spiritual history, and explains why he is considered a pioneer of early Sufism.

Studying the prominent figures, luminaries, geniuses, poets, and writers of Arab-Islamic thought, particularly in Iraq, is among the most important historical and literary studies. Civilized nations cannot forget their distinguished scholars, thinkers, and writers, and they ensure their contributions are recognized in their present and future.

Accordingly, this research focuses on the life of one of Iraq's great historians and poets, the scholar Muhammad Rida al-Shabibi, who lived in the 19th and 20th centuries. Throughout his life, he fought against injustice in all its forms and defended the freedom and independence of his country. Neither the pain nor the persecution he endured deterred him from fulfilling his mission. This Iraqi poet lived with dignity and self-respect, remaining true to his humanitarian beliefs until his death.

He left behind a large number of published and unpublished works, totaling more than 29 books, as well as numerous articles and research papers published in various Iraqi and Arab journals, covering diverse topics in history, literature, language, politics, and other fields. Therefore, my research, entitled "Reflections on the Descriptive Poetry of the Iraqi Poet Muhammad Rida al-Shabibi (d. 1385 AH/1965 CE)," is divided into two sections. The first section examines aspects of Muhammad Rida al-Shabibi's life, while the second section focuses on his descriptive poetry about nature, as found in his collected works. The research draws upon several sources.

Accounts of China as recorded in the writings of geographers are among the most prominent geographical sources, categorized as either geographical texts or accounts of field journeys. These sources not only documented geographical information but also included records of historical events and social and cultural details, making them akin to comprehensive encyclopedias of the places and cities they covered. Among the distant regions reached by Muslim geographers and which captured their attention, China stands out as a prime destination. China is one of the most extensively documented regions, thanks to its wealth of geographical, political, cultural, and economic information. Its landmarks and events were meticulously recorded during the period between the 3rd and 10th centuries AH (10th and 17th centuries CE.

This study examines the measures adopted by Islamic mints in different Islamic periods to confront coin forgery and counterfeiting.

It highlights the technical, regulatory, legal, and administrative procedures employed to maintain the credibility of coinage, starting from the design of coins and the engraving of names, inscriptions, symbols, and seals on the flans, to the control of the metal used and methods for verifying its purity. The study also discusses the challenges faced by mints in combating counterfeiters and the methods used to punish them, in addition to the administrative and technical structure of the mints and their mode of operation.

This study examines the historical sources utilized by the Tunisian historian Hassan Husni Abdelwahab (1884–1968) in his research on the history of Tunisia and Ifriqiya. Abdelwahab attached great importance to classical works that recorded the Islamic conquests, geography, biographies, dynastic histories, and chronicles, making them the foundation of his scholarly investigations, The research presents these sources chronologically according to the death dates of their authors, highlighting their nature and scope, such as the works of Ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥakam, al-Balādhurī, and Ibn Khaldūn, while analyzing their reliability and accuracy. It further demonstrates how Abdelwahab engaged critically with these texts: rather than merely transmitting their narratives, he compared accounts, cross-checked information, and reconstructed a comprehensive picture of Ifriqiya’s history from the Islamic conquest to the modern era, The significance of this study lies in showing the role of classical sources in shaping modern historical writing in Tunisia, while also underlining the scholarly value of Abdelwahab’s efforts in preserving the memory of the nation and safeguarding its historical heritage.