ANBAR JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

Heavy metal pollution in soil has seriously affected the living environment of human beings Among all heavy metal pollution, cadmium (Cd) is one of the most difficult to migrate pollutants in soil. Therefore, this systematic review includes the remediation techniques of Cd-contaminated groundwater that using. Different remediation techniques, including pump and treat, permeable reactive barrier, adsorption, biosorption, electrochemical, precipitation, ion exchange and bioremediation are reviewed. The advantages and disadvantages of some remediation technologies for cadmium from groundwater are outlined in order to assist the selection of a suitable technology for a groundwater remediation project. Bioremediation is a common remediation strategy used with low Cd concentrations due to the ability of the bacterial cells to bioremediate Cd.

A disease survey was done from the cucumber greenhouses in four locations (Qushtapa, Tandura, Daraban, and Choman) of Erbil province from July to October (2021) were obtained; the highest disease incidence was recorded in Daraban 57.44%, Tandura 45.76%, Qushtapa 21.88%, and the lowest disease incidence were recorded in Choman 18.3%. Different damping off fungi Isolated from soil, seeds, roots, and stem samples of cucumber plants. In all samples were isolated, Pythium aphanidermatum, Globiporangium ultimum, Phytophthora parasitica, Phytophthora melonis, Fusarium solani, and Rhizoctonia solani and identified confirmed molecularly, in all isolates Rhizoctonia solani is the most virulent fungus with 110 isolates, Fusarium equiseti 99 isolates, Globiporangium ultimum 90 isolates, Fusarium solani 88 isolates, Pythium aphanidermatum 63 isolates, Phytophthora melonis 61 isolates, and the lowest isolates was Phytophthora parasitica 46 isolates. Also isolated important bio-agent Trichoderma citrinoviride. Five isolated fungi were the first recorded in Iraq that isolated in cucumber seedlings caused damping-off, there are Globiporangium ultimum (Accession Numbers OP235917), Fusarium equiseti (Accession Numbers ON665765), Phytophthora parasitica (Accession Numbers ON665761), Phytophthora melonis (Accession Numbers ON665763), and Trichoderma citrinoviride (Accession Numbers ON665764).

Salinity is a major abiotic stress, limiting plant growth and agricultural productivity worldwide. It is known that plant growth regulators mitigate the negative effects of salinity. The current study showed the effect of 6-benzyl aminopurine, gibberellin and melatonin on wheat, which is a moderately tolerant crop to salinity, and it is grown for grain as it is a major crop for most countries of the world. A field experiment was conducted using three cultivars of wheat (Al-Ezz, Dijlah, and Al-Rasheed) under the influence of five combinations of tempering seeds before planting (Seed Hardening with salts (comparison 2), Seed Hardening + Benzyl stimulation, Seed hardening + Gibberellin stimulation, Seed hardening + Melatonin stimulation), all of them. It was irrigated with salty well water (6 dS Siemens m 2 m) in addition to the treatment (comparison 1) that was not subjected to hardening and stimulation and was irrigated with river water. The potassium and sodium content of the leaves were evaluated, The Dijlah and Al-Rasheed cultivars had the highest potassium content 3.40 and 3.10, while the Ezz cultivar had the highest sodium content of 0.238. The area of the flag leaf, the number of branches and the biological yield of Al-Rashid cultivar increased (19.6 cm2 and 43.6 branch cm2 and 126.06g cm-2), while the Dijlah cultivar achieved the highest root weight of 0.568 gm. The combinations of salinity treatment (hardening + melatonin) increased the area of the flag leaf and the concentration of potassium in the leaves and decreased the sodium element (14.03 cm-2, 3.866 and 0.167), Thus, it was superior to the comparison treatment 1 that was not exposed to saline stress, and this was positively reflected on the rest of the studied traits. It turns out that melatonin can relieve salt stress in plants by affecting metabolic or physiological processes. The application of melatonin is an effective management strategy to mitigate salt stress in order to increase agricultural production and sustainability.

Investigations made and soil samples brought from 14 sites in different areas, including Abu Ghraib and Al Anbar. Tests and measurements made in the Microbiology Laboratory at the College of Agriculture, University of Anbar. Department of Soil Sciences and water Resources, in order to isolate bio-fertilizers and test isolates fixing nitrogen in atmosphere and solvents for phosphorous compounds efficiency. The experiment included isolating and diagnosis of bacteria from rhizosphere soils of different plants that were brought from different agricultural areas, 74 isolates obtained by soils alleviation, and then the bio-chemical morphological and microscopic characteristics of these soils studied. The results showed that the most abundant and frequent isolates were Azotobacter 15 isolates, Bacillus 15 isolates, Pseudomonas 11 isolates, and Azosperillium 10 isolates and Actinomycetes 10 isolates. Nitrifying bacteria of both geneas Nitrosomonas 7 isolates and Nitrobacter 6 isolates were existed while the numbers of bacteria Azotobacter and Bacillus which fixing Nitrogen in free form and solvent phosphate compounds in the soil are exsist in the soil of the rhizosphere of different plants used in research in agricultural fields. The highest biodiversity rate of isolates was found in Fallujah Nuaimia field in 12 hectares, which pepper planted, with an average of 11 isolates and the lowest rate was 2 isolates in the soil of Heet Basayer field were palms planted in an area of 5 hectares. Chemical and physical Features as well as some heavy elements were estimated elements. Also the concentrations of each site that the samples were taken were estimated. Obtained in the laboratory of the College of Life Sciences at the University of Baghdad. The most important results were the estimated elements were in normal and allowed average except a little increase in zinc concentration 90 mg kg 1 in Sofia field, 7 hectares, were Jet planted, and the concentration of lead was 24.3 mg kg - 1 in Abu Ghraib Nibras field of 80 hectares, which planted with wheat.

A field experiment was carried out at the Agricultural Research Station of the College of Agriculture, University of Anbar for the season 2021- 2022, in order to study the effect of different levels of potassium fertilization and planting dates on the growth and yield of local garlic. Four levels of potassium fertilization were used 0, 150, 200, 250 kg ha-1, they were added at three dates 15/9, 1/10, 15/10. The study was carried out as a factorial experiment in a randomized complete block design (R.C.B.D.) with three replications. Plants fertilized at the level (250 kg ha-1) were significantly outperformed in vegetative growth, yield and quality (leaf area, total yield and oil percentage) and reached (7.33 dm2 and 14.48 ton ha-1 and 14.18%) respectively compared to the unfertilized plants that gave the lowest value was (3.73 dm2 and 10.33 tons ha-1 and 12.39%) respectively. The results also showed that the first (early) date was significantly superior in the characteristics of vegetative growth, yield and quality (leaf area, total yield and oil percentage) with 7.08 dm2, 17.23 tons ha-1, and 13.84% respectively, compared to the third planting date with the lowest leaf area, yield, and oil percentage (6.34 dm2 plant, 2.86 tons ha-1, and 12.67%) respectively. The interaction between the factors was significant difference, as the early date and fertilization level of 250 kg ha-1 were superior in the vegetative growth, yield and quality characteristics amounted to (7.64 dm2, 19.70 tons ha-1, and 14.80%) compared to the lowest amount achieved by the late date and non-fertilized plants for the same traits, which amounted to 5.31 dm2, 2, 7.35 tones ha-1 and 12.39% respectively.

During August to November, 2021, symptoms of mosaic were observed in various squash (Cucurbite pepo) plants at different locations in Erbil province.
The survey showed mosaic diseases incidence in different squash varieties ranged 0% to 54.75%. Disease symptoms varied from malformation and distortion of leaves and fruits, vein clearing, vein banding, blistering, and shoestring. The highest infection rate was recorded in Grdasheer while the lowest was observed in Murtka on Muzaffar variety.
RT-PCR confirmed the association of Water melon mosaic virus (WMV) and Zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV) associated with the symptomatic plants.

This study was carried out during the growing season 2021 in a local private orchard located outskirts of Erbil city nearby to Bahrka, Kurdistan Region/ Iraq. On pomegranate trees (Punica granatum L.) cv. Sawa which were 12 old years, all trees that chosen had uniform in size and growth were trained with multi stems system and planted at 4x4 m, to study the effect of foliar application of Gibberellic acid at three concentrations (0, 150, 300 mg. L¬¬-1), and liquid Calcium at (0, 1.5, 3 ml. L¬-1) on growth and fruits quality. Three rates of GA3 and liquid Calcium were applied twice the first one after two weeks of complete fruit set, and the second time when the fruit pill was change in color. The study was arranged as a factorial experiment in (RCBD) with three replications by using one tree as the experimental unit. The results were summarized that: foliar spray of (GA¬¬3) at (300 mg. l-1) rates led to a significant increase and gave the highest mean values of leaf content of (nitrogen, phosphor, potassium and calcium), leaf content of chlorophyll, leaf area, fruit size, epicarps content of Ca, TSS, anthocyanin and vitamin - c content. While foliar spray of liquid Calcium at (3 ml. l¬¬-1) gave the best results of leaf content of (nitrogen and potassium), leaf area, fruit size, epicarps content of Ca, TSS, anthocyanin and vitamin - c content.

The study was conducted at the plastic house of the College of Agricultural Engineering Science, Salahaddin University- Erbil, Iraq, during 2022. To investigate the response of sour orange seedlings to application with bio health at three concentrations (0, 10 and 20 mg. L-1) and three concentrations of Synergic (0, 3 and 6 ml. L-1) on growth characteristics of Sour Orange (Citrus aurantium L.) seedlings local cultivar. A factorial experiment with three replicates was carried out in a Randomized Complete Design (CRD) using three seedlings for each experimental unit. Data were analyzed by (SAS) using the Duncan (ANOVA ،P = 0.05). The obtained results indicated that the growth characteristics were increased by increasing the concentration of the two bio stimulators as compared with control, foliar application of bio health at (20 mg. L-1) caused significant increase in most of the studied parameters. At the same time, foliar application of Synergic fertilization at (6 ml. L-1) gave the highest value of stem high, stem diameter, leaf area, number of leaves /seedling, shoot fresh weight, shoot dry weight, root fresh weight and root dry weight. The interaction between the two bio stimulators caused a significant increase for all growth characteristics, the best treatment was at level (Bio. 20 mg. L-1+ Sy. 6 ml.L-1) as compare with control.

The fish production industry has become one of the most important animal production projects, and fish industry suffer from feed costs, so this study aims to find accessible food additives that increase production or reduce costs. This was done by 126 fish of common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) Average individual weight 42.72 g ± 2.28 g. and 254.78 g ± 2.95 g biomass weight. were randomly distributed to 21 aquaria, with seven treatments with three replicates, 6 fish per aquarium. Fish were fed 3% by weight of biomass, on a prepared diet with a protein content of 28%. It was divided into seven sections by treatments, T1 without addition, T2, T3and T4 adding sunflower oil 2, 4 and 6 g/kg, consecutively, T5, T6 and T7 adding canola oil 2, 4, and6 g/kg consecutively. The experiment period lasted 70 days, and weight data were taken every two weeks. Studied growth indicators (WG) Weight gain (DWG) Daily weight gain (RGR) Relative growth rate (SGR) Specific growth rate, feed utilization indicators Feed conversion rate (FCR), feed efficiency rate (FER), protein efficiency rate (PER). The fish body components were studied. The results showed a significant superiority (p≤ 0.05) of T5, T6 and T7 treatments over all treatments of growth indicators. Similarly for indices of food use, treatments T5, T6 and T7 significantly outperformed (p≤ 0.05) in all experimental treatments for FER and PER indices.

This study aims at recognizing Pesticides and how the process of pesticides biodegradation by microbiology took place, and the effect of environmental condition on this process.
And how the research uncovered the efficiency of microbiology in the biodegradation process of pesticides, as the perfect temperature for the biodegradation process is 40 °C and humidity effect on pesticides efficiency, when high humidity reduces pesticide efficiency and the perfect acidity to increase bacteria efficiency is 7, for the incubation period, it was found during the previous studies that the best incubation period is 5-7 days, in this period the bacteria imprint on pesticides and increase biodegradation of it.

The antimicrobial effect of Escherichia coli O157:H7 was evaluated in Erbil City's fresh vegetables and meat. A total of 250 samples were collected in Erbil City. E. coli O157:H7 was successfully extracted using the ISO-16654:2001 standard. After that, the samples were isolated for antimicrobial susceptibility for ten different antimicrobials using the disk diffusion method. Only 0.51 percent of the meat and vegetable samples tested had E. coli O157: H7. According to kanamycin and ampicillin susceptibility testing results, all of the microorganisms examined were invulnerable. Erbil City's meat and vegetables are contaminated with Escherichia coli, according to this research. Despite the disease's low incidence, the fact that it may be found in a raw food product raises questions about public health implications.

A field experiment conducted at the 2021 agricultural season in one of the agricultural field in Anbar Governorate - Fallujah district to study the effect of root treatment with different concentrations of Mycorrhizal fungi and folair application with different concentrations of Moringa leaf extract and the interaction between them on the proportion of mineral elements in Citrullus Colocynthis leaves. The experiment carried out in a randomized complete block design (R.C.B.D) with three replications. The experiment included 16 treatments, inoculation with four concentrations of mycorrhizal fungi (0, 15, 20, 25 g), folair application with four concentrations of moringa leaf extract (0, 100, 200, 300 g. L-1) and the interaction treatment between them. The averages compared using the least significant difference L.S.D at a probability level of 0.05. The results showed that the inoculation of roots with mycorrhizal fungi gave significant differences in the studied traits, as the inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi at concentration 25 g for each plant achieved the highest values for some of the studied traits, which significantly outperformed the control treatment without addition in the ratio of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. While folair application with Moringa leaf extract when treated 200 g. L-1 gave the best results for the ratio of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. Whereas, the interaction treatment 25 gm +200 gm/l between the mycorrhizal inoculum and moringa leaf extract, respectively, gave the highest percentage of nitrogen in the leaves, while the interaction treatment 20 gm +200 g. L-1 between the mycorrhizal inoculum and moringa leaf extract, respectively, achieved the highest rate of phosphorous. and potassium in the leaves.

Providing a clean and safe environment is one of the great challenges facing humanity. As a result of various human activities over thousands of years in the field of agriculture, industry, housing, burning fuel and elimination of forests and agricultural areas, the environment has been greatly destroyed, and water, air and soil are polluted, and this has resulted in a several risks and problems that It began threatening humanity, perhaps the most important of which is the spread of diseases and epidemics caused by pollution, such as climate change and global warming, which caused major climatic problems that led to storms and floods on the one hand, and drought, desertification and water scarcity on the other hand. It may also lead to bigger and deeper problems if we delay facing this challenge. Green environmental applications such as nanotechnology have great for environmental sanitation (land, water, air) and treatment of pollution resulting from agricultural and industrial activities, accommodation and others. It has a set of low-cost solutions to environmental cleaning problems. Environmental protection is one of the most prominent applied fields that nanotechnology pays great attention to because of the interrelationship between human health and environment in which-it lives. Green technology aims to use less harmful technology to human health and the environment and gradually leads to storage, distribution and use systems that are clean and non-polluting to the environment. Thus, it reduces carbon dioxide emissions significantly, and saves the world from the problem of climate change or global warming. Hence, this article aims to review the future green ecological applications of nanotechnology.

This study was conducted to determine the impact of using three levels of sunflower seed meal (SFSM) (0%, 10%, and 20%) to evaluate the growth performance, carcass traits in 270 male broiler (Ross 308), reared for 42 days distributed in a completely randomized design, with 3 treatments five replicates with 18 chicks per each for 42 days. T1: Control treatment (Basal diet containing zero SFSM), T2: Basal diet containing 10% SFSM and T3: Basal diet containing 20% SFSM. The inclusion of various levels of sunflower seed meal was observed alter the productive performance of the birds. The inclusion of 20 % sunflower seed meal (SFSM) had significant differences (p≤0.05) in overall body weight (LBW), body weight gain (BWG), while %10 SFSM had a significant impact on feed intake (FI), feed conversion ratio (FCR). The inclusion of sunflower seed meal from 10%, 20% had effect on carcass characteristic cut yield of broilers. They were slaughter weight, carcass weight, dressing percentage, breast, joint wings, and legs. Slaughter weight, carcass weight, breast weight, leg weight, wing weight, were influenced by high level of (SFSM) which had a significant effect (p≤0.05) between treatments. This study was concluded that male broiler performance traits carcass characteristics improved by inclusion high level of (SFSM).

In this investigation, the impact of five locally sourced sawdust types and additional substances on crop yield and chemical contents of Ganoderma lucidum and three levels of spawning rates (5, 10 and 15%) were studied. The organic materials used were as follows: The sawdust of Wheat straw, Rice straw, Populus Canadensis, Salix Alba and Cardboard, some supplemented substrates compare with raw organic Substrates led to an increase in fruits bodies fresh weight by 194 G bag-1compared to the raw substrates by 180 G bag-1 and with significant differences. Otherwise the cap width also had significant differences by 6.3 cm in raw substrates while supplemented substrates were 5.5 cm, While there were some variations in other characteristics examined, such as the weight, length, and diameter of the cap and stipe, there were no noteworthy differences in the levels of protein, nitrogen, carbohydrates, and vitamin C in the mushrooms grown on different organic substrates, while there were significant differences between substrates with ash and fiber, the best substrates were Carolina poplar sawdust by 7.57% for ash and 31.26% for fibers and white willow sawdust 7.76% for ash and the lowest value for ash 6.77% for wheat straw. 30.93% for fibers with Rice straw substrate, there were clear significant differences in most of the studied traits of fungal inoculum levels, and the best level was 15%, which led to a proven increase in most traits.

The current study was carried out in plant tissue culture lab., in center of desert studies/ University of Anbar, to determine the possibility of inducing callus from the cotyledon of Helianthus annuus L. by using different concentrations of growth regulator 2,4-D (1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 mg L-1) with other concentrations of growth regulator Kintein (0 and 0.25, 0.5 and 0.75 mg L-1). NaOCl solution was used to sterilize the seeds at four concentrations of 0, 2, 4 and 6% and for three periods of 5, 10 and 15 min to obtain sterile seedlings. The results showed that the concentration of 6.0% of NaOCl exceeded when treating the seeds for 10 min by achieving the highest percentage for eliminating contamination and the highest mean for obtaining sterile seedlings, which reached 100% and 90%, respectively. As for callus induction, the excised explant of sterile seedlings was cultured in MS media supplied with the growth regulators in the study for 35 days. The results showed that the combination of 0.25×1.0 mg L-1 achieved the highest response to callus formation, reached 100%, and the minimum time for the start of callus induction was 5.29 days. In comparison, the combination of 0.25×2.0 mg L-1 showed the minimum period for the completion of callus formation was 25.14 days. In contrast, the combination of 0.75×2.0 mg L-1 showed the highest fresh and dry weight values of 767.0 and 53.0 mg, respectively.

This study was conducted at Al-Nahrain University- Biotechnology Research Center, from February 2020 to March 2020 on Albino rats that ranged in age 2- 3 month with weights 200-250 g. 42 rats were used and distributed into seven groups, each of which included 6 animals. aimed to study the effect of diabetes (induced by alloxan) on acid-base homeostasis and serum electrolytes level for experimental rat in addition to the role of adding potassium supplement celery plant extract and pomegranate juice to the diet in preventing the physiological disorders. Alkali proposed to help prevent the development and treatment of high blood acid and body fluids. Different treatments led to positive effects on the level of the concentration of glucose, β-hydroxybutyrate, electrolytes and serum Ph.

This study was conducted to find out the health status of the internal organs of birds and some characteristics of the carcass using the system of gradual increase in the intensity of illumination in the chicks of the broiler. 224 Ross 308 chicks were used in this study at the age of one day. The chicks were randomly distributed to 4 treatments with 4 replications for each treatment (14 chicks/duplicate). The transactions included the following: T1 lighting program according to the guide for 308 ROSS company (control treatment). T2 Lighting program according to the guide and a gradual increase in the intensity of lighting and a gradual reality of light every 20 minutes. T3 Lighting program according to the guide and a gradual increase in the intensity of lighting and a gradual reality of light every 40 minutes. T4 Lighting program according to the guide and a gradual increase in the intensity of the lighting and a gradual reality of the light every 60 minutes. Both the characteristics of the carcass and the internal organs of the experimental birds were studied, and the results showed a significant increase in the grooming ratio of all experimental treatment birds compared with the control treatment, and a significant increase in the relative weight of the duodenum for the fourth treatment compared with the third and second treatment without a significant difference with the control treatment The relative weight of the spleen was significantly superior to the fourth and second treatment compared to the treatment. The rest of the traits did not show any significant differences, the different parameters, the back, the thigh, the drum stick, Abdominal, wings, legs, heart, liver, stomach, glandular, pancreas, pod of Fabricia, bile, jejunum, ileum, cecum is full, cecum is empty. Thus, we conclude that the intensity of lighting has a positive effect in raising the percentage of netting in the carcass of birds exposed to the gradual intensity of lighting.

This study was conducted in the University of Anbar in the College of Agriculture/ Department of Animal Production Sheep Field, for the period from 10/15/2021 to 5/7/2022. The aim of this study was to use the melatonin hormone in two different doses and the Anabasis articulate extract in vaginal sponges locally, to understand their effectiveness on the reproductive performance in the local Iraqi ewes. The study was conducted on twenty local ewes within 4-2.5 years age range and 47 kg weight average. All ewes were treated with vaginal sponges for 14 days, and was randomly divided into four treatment groups: (T1) 20mg melatonin hormone, (T2) 30mg melatonin hormone, (T3) Anabasis articulate extract at a concentration (3g) and (T4) was left without any treatment and was considered a control treatment. The treatment was applied through a sponge with a hole made in it using a surgical scalpel; that hole position should be away from a pulling thread attached to the sponge to avoid cutting it accidentally and thus not being able to pull the sponge out. The treatment continued from day 0 of pushing the vaginal sponges until day 14 when they were withdrawn. All ewes were injected with eCG hormone at a dose of 500 IU intramuscularly after sponge withdrawal.
Also, the experimental ewes were kept with 3 rams for 3 days. Blood samples were collected from the jugular vein and the levels of estrogen and progesterone were estimated to know the effect of treatments on reproductive performance in ewes.
The experiment treatments showed that there were no significant differences between the treatments and the control in the duration of pregnancy and the period from the sponge’s withdrawal to the time of estrous behavior. Moreover, it has a significant effect on the amount of vaginal fluids of the treatments compared with the control group, as it recorded a significant difference by (P<0.05). All the three experiment treatments were superior in the percentage of the estrus occurrence, scoring 100%, compared to 80% at the control group. The pregnancy rate has recorded 100% 80% 80% for the three treatment categories compared to 60% for the control. And the fertility rate recorded 100% 80% 80% 80%, respectively, compared to control group (75%) Also, percentage of twins, birt, and missed estrus, T1 and T3 increased significantly compared to T2 and control groups.

The research aims to investigate the most important consequences of the economic shocks that Iraq has suffered in the past decades through some agricultural indicators with employment levels in the agricultural sector (agricultural wages, agricultural investment, agricultural output and agricultural mechanization). To discuss the problem during the period 1998-2019 the authors adopted set of methodology based on an important tool in economic studies at present days, which is the analysis of the structural vector autoregression – SVAR model and the subsequent analysis of structural variance decomposition and structural impulse response, in order to investigate the most important shocks to the economy and the impact on the development of indicators and their impact on these shocks among themselves. The research reached several results in this regard, including the most important and strongest variable shock contributed to the development of indicators and their impact on these shocks among themselves. The agricultural wages (the first shock) is the most influencing variable that effect in variance decomposition of agricultural employment, where the shock effect was 82% in the first year and slowly declined to 69.7% at the end of the period, which means the importance of increasing wages in stimulating the offer of work and thus employment in the agricultural sector, and this variable has a permanent and strong impact in the long run.

Agricultural extension activities can facilitate the introduction of agricultural innovations to farmers and their adoption because agricultural extension services are the primary conduit through which many agricultural innovations are disseminated. Additionally, agricultural extension studies play a crucial role in boosting agricultural productivity and advancing the sector. It can be challenging to convince farmers to implement the suggestions made through extension programs. There is a recursive, mutually supportive cycle at work between the generation of new knowledge and its dissemination to farmers in a form they can understand through extension.
The adoption of technologies over the long term is linked to extension policies. Contact with extension and attendance at training courses have been shown to be influential in the successful implementation of SAPs, according to a number of studies. This is not a positive sign for innovation adoption and transfer. Due to the low number of farmers who rely on the extension agents, it would appear that the extension service and agents are not performing their duties to promote sustainable agriculture in the region. Whether or not farmers adopt new technologies is contingent on the knowledge and expertise of extension workers and the quality of the information they receive. For instance, this could be because of limitations such as a lack of guidance for agricultural extension workers, which reduced farmers' access to information sources, or because the extension workers' methods of disseminating that information were insufficient or inappropriate for farmers' needs.