political issues

This study examines multipolarity in international politics and economicsa, intended to enhance global order comprehension. The global order\'s evolution is examined through World War I,World War II, the Cold War, and globalization. Identifying international multipolarity patterns is highlighted. The research also investigates multipolar global economic system outcomes. Methodology: A multidisciplinary approach is used in this study, combining historical data and theoretical frameworks. The study analyses primary sources, scholarly sources, and empirical data to trace the world order\'s historical origins and identify important drivers of diversity. In addition, qualitative research methodologies are used to assess current world political and economic trends, providing insights into global trends.

The issue of energy security is among the important topics, because the continuity and vitality of the economy depends on: energy, of its various types, including oil, which is a source of energy and a raw material used in various industrial sectors. Countries are concerned with the issue of energy security, and are working to provide guarantees and provide alternatives, whether in terms of the countries from which they import, or in terms of the multiplicity of energy sources.
The Russian-Ukrainian war caused relative damage to energy security, before the world moved to contain it, and among the important tools for dealing with that issue was: OPEC. OPEC is an organization that includes a number of major oil producers in the world, and has flexibility to increase production, and has dealt with war events in a way that does not lead to targeting the rights of producers, or increasing the energy crisis.
The aim of this research is to know the role of OPEC in: providing energy security guarantees, in order to achieve global stability.

The research aims to elocidate the depth of American strategic perception regarding the significance of Eastern Europe. This is particularly relevant after the shifts that occurred in this perception. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the United States found itself as the sole superpower, a unique position not previously held by any nation since the Peace of Westphalia and the emergence of nation-states. Even in the post-Cold War era, the United States continues to outpace all other countries in the geopolitical system. The research underscores the importance of Eastern Europe as a geostrategic sphere of influence for the United States. However, the central issue it addresses is how America, through its new theoretical propositions, justifies its presence and dominance in the face of ambitious rising revisionist powers, especially the Russian Federation, which possesses historical and demographic roots in this region. The research hypothesis is grounded in the geo-military, economic, and political significance of this area, analyzed through various methodologies. The study is divided into two main axes, in addition to the introduction and conclusion. The first axis discusses the theoretical justifications for American unilateralism and dominance, emphasizing the geostrategic importance of Eastern Europe. The second axis delves into the geostrategic significance of Eastern Europe in American perception

Fair elections are considered one of the most important foundations on which good governance is based. Fair elections lead to the existence of true democracy, and determine the fate of the state and the fate of democratic transformation and governance in it. If the elections are not characterized by integrity, they will be considered sham elections, but if the elections are free and fair, they will lead to achieving For good governance.

The research examined the role of the League of Arab States in confronting the crises and conflicts that some Arab countries faced after 2011, to demonstrate the extent of its effectiveness in performing its duties towards member states, by identifying the circumstances of its founding and its most important objectives, and its position on the Arab crises during the study period, and then evaluating its performance in Managing these crises. The study concluded that the League was weak and ineffective in managing the situation towards the Arab member states, and that it had become a subordinate entity that fulfilled the interests of some countries and regional and international powers.

The study highlights the security dimension in Russian-Australian relations, including important developments and events that affected the security relationship between the two countries. The main common security topics, challenges and potential security threats facing each country were discussed, which relate to international issues such as the Ukrainian war and its impact on the security relations of the two countries, as well as cybersecurity threats and international ties, alliances and agreements that bind each party to the other, which constituted a major threat to the interests of the two countries.

Transcendentalism believes in the power of the spirit and generosity of man and believes that he possesses the intrinsic capabilities that qualify him to build a society in which justice and freedom prevail and whose rights are not undermined or violated. Transcendental thought was revived by the philosopher Kant in the era of European Enlightenment, but it did not achieve a realistic impact on Western political thought. As for the intellectual and political climate The American was ready to adopt his ideas and apply them as part of building a civil-political society that coincided with the independence movement of 1776, and his intellectual influences turned into a common language between the state’s political elites and the general public, We find that the political and economic changes in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries did not give Transcendentalism and its ideas the opportunity to occupy the forefront at the level of contemporary American political thought, but its intellectual foundations were able to be deeply rooted in the thought and behavior of the individual and collective mind, which was embodied in the emergence of intellectual and political theories and theses with a purely American identity, and contributed Also by achieving the sustainability process to protect the values and principles of liberal democracy and later transforming it into a global model at the level of thought and political action.

In this study, an attempt was made to monitor the impact of the external variable, whether from states or specialized organizations in efforts to combat terrorism in Iraq. The study was launched from the logic that the external variable played an important role in ending terrorism in Iraq, but this role is supposed to be changing following the status quo. In order to verify this assumption, multiple approaches were used, including the historical descriptive approach, as well as the deductive analytical approach based on the facts, outcomes, and tracking phenomenon. The study reached out to number of conclusions, including that the effectiveness of the external variable in the war on terrorism is characterized by change, and instability in its vision and practices according to what its own interests dictate, and based on that Iraq need to orginaze the external variable’s role in the war against terrorism, as well institutional adaptation according to national in interest as a requirement of sovereignty.

Transitional justice is a set of mechanisms taken by society and the state for the purpose of addressing human rights violations caused by previous dictatorial governments. To know the role that transitional justice plays in promoting human rights, it is necessary to know its concept and jurisprudential definitions found in some local laws, with the need to know the most important mechanisms and how to Applying it to work to correct a miserable past by revealing the truth of violations, knowing their perpetrators, and punishing them. Then, it is necessary to redress the victims’ harm and compensate them as a result of the violations they were exposed to, and reform the institutions that caused those violations, including the constitution, unfair laws, and the judicial structure. Emphasis is also placed on commemorating the violations in a manner that It enhances the role of transitional justice in promoting human rights.

Religious adherents always have their faith influence their politics, especially if that faith is filled with justifications that are consistent with their politics. From this, our hypothesis began: whether the law legislated by a religious person is supposed to have priority in terms of application, or does his faith remain dominant, and to prove this hypothesis Whether or not two doctrinal dimensions were chosen for research (Jews and Christians), because they represent in our contemporary time the two most influential faiths in the world, regardless of their percentage among the Earth’s population, and in each dimension, research took place in two stages, one of which was controlled by their belief, and the second was a stage after legislation. International humanitarian law, while the legislating states, that is, the major and dominant states themselves that impose their opinions on others, are supposed to apply it; Because according to what it claims, it no longer believes in the religious doctrinal dimension, because it is supposed to have become a thing of the past, and the problem that was discussed is that the owners of these two faiths, despite their doctrinal disagreement in origins and not branches, but they always put their differences and fighting aside; When the other party is Islam, as a result, the premise of the hypothesis from which we started is correct, that religious belief still has an impact on the policies of countries that claim to separate religion from the state.

There is no doubt that the emergence of new techniques, and the growth of interconnectedness and interdependence in the context of globalization, gives a particular severity and complexity to modern conflicts, where methods based on the integrated application of political, economic, media and other non-military measures are used. These techniques are called "hybrid" methods as they are implemented with the support of military force, and thus allow the political objectives of the conflict to be achieved with the least impact of military force on the enemy.
There is no doubt that the emergence of new techniques, and the growth of interconnectedness and interdependence in the context of globalization, gives a particular severity and complexity to modern conflicts, where methods based on the integrated application of political, economic, media and other non-military measures are used. These techniques are called "hybrid" methods as they are implemented with the support of military force, and thus allow the political objectives of the conflict to be achieved with the least impact of military force on the enemy.hybrid wars and color revolutions. Strategies are consolidated through the interest of achieving political objectives with minimal impact of military force on the enemy through the use of modern information and knowledge techniques based on "soft power" and "hard power". Meanwhile, a combination of traditional and mixed types of modern conflicts is already a determining factor, a determining factor for all armed conflicts. So the use of hybrid methods in conflicts of a new type allows you to achieve the specified goal using the military intervention of non-state actors, traditional conflicts necessarily involve hybrid techniques.

The United States is the country with the greatest influence on the global stage due to its strength of force and influence within the framework of implementing foreign policy. It uses a variety of strategies to reacشh its goals،and one of these strategies is the use of soft power. Soft power refers to a country's spiritual and moral power as an outcome of the values it upholds through its infrastructure، culture، and artistic expression of human rights. that inspired others to follow its sources، appreciate، and admire this tactic and be impacted by it. wherein what you desire becomes what they desire.The goals of soft power and hard power are the same، however soft power uses more flexible way by supporting radio and television broadcasts to promote cyber information and ideas and employs more adaptable techniques to disseminate ideas and information. Its goal is to undermine public confidence in the current system by deceiving everyone into accepting benefits that soft power technique owners may perceive as the most advantageous and effective ones.
The former president Barack Obama's policy toward Iraq was seen as exceptionally unique since it concentrated on implementing a different plan and adopted a different approach from the government that came before it. This was known as the "soft power" strategy.

The phenomenon of international humanitarian intervention is one of the global phenomena that has presented itself forcefully on the international scene in the past and present. It is a reflection of power relations in the international system and has sparked controversy with its chaotic, competitive nature. The state uses its power potential if its political, economic and strategic interests are exposed to danger, and the phenomenon of international intervention has recently become the focus of attention of the entire international community, due to the multiplicity of international conflicts and the large number of interventions resulting from those conflicts, which have become a threat to international peace and security. The issue of intervention has sparked great controversy among philosophers, jurists, and political theorists, between those who reject the idea of intervention as it violates the sovereignty of states and contradict the United Nations Charter, and those who support it, considering intervention to be at the core of the work of the United Nations in order to maintain international peace and security.

According to research، public policy is one of the modern sciences that must be prioritized because of its impact on the country at all political، economic، and social levels، and developed countries have been able to build themselves and achieve a high level of prosperity and development as a result of their interest in developing policies. General strategies، plans، and programs that it uses to carry out its tasks and aims.
Even though it is a subset of national security، food security is as vital. Countries that have achieved food security have been able to attain self-sufficiency، allowing them to meet societal demands while also exporting food supplies and commodities to countries suffering from a food security deficit. It was also able to put pressure on the decision-maker to make judgments in its favor.
Food security، albeit only a subset of national security، is equally important. nations that have attained food security have achieved self-sufficiency، allowing them to fulfill societal demands while simultaneously exporting food supplies and commodities to nations with food security deficits. It was also able to apply pressure on the decision-maker to make decisions in its favor.

During the period following independence, the military governments in West Africa were incapable of meeting the economic social and security requirements of their citizens This was primarily due to their tendency to endorse the authority and influence of specific ethnic and tribal groups within the military and in positions of power both within the country and internationally The West African area continued to be a focal point for military involvement. From the late sixties to the early nineties of the twentieth century the region experienced a period of political turmoil characterised by the over throw of governments led by personal authoritarian and corrupt regimes This trend continued until the second decade of the twenty-first century, during which the West African region remained a hub for military intervention in politics and the removal of governments with such characteristics. This situation persisted from the late 1960s to the early 1990s during which this region experienced a transition to civilian political governance and elected administrations This continued until the 2010s when many of these elected regimes lost their ability to convincingly maintain their democratic legitimacy. This was due to pervasive political corruption among the ruling elites manipulation of constitutional provisions governing the peaceful transfer of power and growing alienation between governments and political and civil factions This resulted in the formation of a pernicious cycle often referred to as the coup trap.

The research addressed the climate change crisis that has affected many countries of the world, including Iraq, and the repercussions of this crisis on Iraq, with the aim of arriving at an effective strategy through which it can adapt to the risks of climate change by benefiting from international efforts that have succeeded in reducing the effects of climate challenges.
Iraq is one of the countries that have been subjected to climate change that has affected the environmental reality, causing a rise in temperatures and a decrease in rainfall levels. It has also caused a decline in water levels, led to an increase in the rate of salinization, and the frequent occurrence of dust and sand storms, which made Iraq classified among Countries most affected by climate change. Adapting to climate change requires radical transformations in human and natural systems in order to develop climate strategies capable of alleviating the severity of climate challenges, in order to move away from the cycle of climate danger, and reduce the environmental damage that has occurred in Iraq or may occur in the future

The research focuses on the nature of the relationship between political regime changes in African countries and international politics. Africa is considered a focal point for several countries looking to achieve their interests and extend their influence in the continent, which holds significant economic, political, and strategic importance. Russia and China, in particular, are continuously striving to enhance their control over the natural resources available in African countries. Consequently, the competition between these nations and the concerns over the growing influence of one side at the expense of the other reflect the future of this rivalry between powers

Turkey adopted a new foreign policy after the Justice and Development Party took power in 2002. Its goal is rapprochement and reorganization of political, economic, and security relations with neighboring countries and regions close to them.
Turkey tried to rapprochement with Arab countries and solve problems with neighboring countries, through the policy of “zeroing problems” and following a harmonious diplomatic policy. Turkey took advantage of its membership in international organizations and employed its soft power in strengthening economic and cultural relations, and enhancing cooperation with countries to achieve its foreign policy goals.
However, after 2011 and as a result of the Arab Spring revolutions that swept the Arab world, its foreign policy orientations changed, as it adopted new orientations different from its orientations before 2011 due to the impact of the revolutions on the Turkish decision-maker’s perceptions of the nature of change, as well as the positions and presence required to achieve Turkish interests in this matter. Events, as Turkey differed in its positions towards each of the Arab Spring countries, according to the nature of its interests, goals, and relations with those countries.

Decentralization، in both its administrative and political forms، is linked to a specific political philosophy that establishes democratic rule and thus meets the needs of the members of society، as it is based on a set of requirements that almost amount to scientific laws. “The success of administrative and political decentralization” does not only include slogans، but also on the projects involved. For all the political، legal، and even psychological dimensions، one of the important and pivotal conditions is not to weaken the center، or fragment the authorities in the state and weaken the pillars and foundations of the democratic center. Therefore، the adoption of administrative and political decentralization should be within a gradual framework and within the context of benefiting from previous Tunisian experiences. And the experiences of other countries، as there must be political، democratic and professional elites capable of achieving the necessary harmony between the slogan and the project in the approach of the Tunisian ruling regime after 2011، based on the aspirations of the ruling regime in Tunisia according to the 2014 Constitution، and it constitutes a method of regimes. The ruling political system، according to which each region and entity has the right to manage and facilitate its local affairs in a natural way، and it is considered as an attribution of legal personality to independent entities within the state that represent human groups in a specific territorial area، that take their decisions independently through an elected body، and this was due to the weakness of the regional-municipal performance and the lack of The existence of the official development alternative، which the country suffered from as a result of the lack of state resources and their limitations، is a major challenge to the path of decentralization in the country’s second republic. Decentralization was recognized in order to achieve development in regions and regions that complain of marginalization، and to emphasize rights and freedoms according to the country’s constitution in 2014.

Countries always seek to provide energy sources represented by oil and gas to meet their economic, social, and even political needs, indifferent to the damage caused by these sources when they are consumed and transformed into harmful materials to the environment, which accumulate over years and turn into disasters that are difficult to treat. The countries that are the focus of the study (the Russian Federation, the United States) seek to enter new areas to search about new energy sources, Especially after the recent environmental changes that led to the melting of ice in the Arctic region, which led to increase competition between the countries overlooking the Arctic to exploit the existing wealth that emerged as a result of continuous exploration, which confirmed the presence of large quantities of hydrocarbons lurking beneath Ice.

After the concept of security has changed since the end of the Cold War and its expansion، as it is no longer limited to state security related to military affairs only due to the emergence of other challenges and threats، one of the schools that studied the concept of contemporary security is the Copenhagen School of Security Studies، where it presented a new concept in the issues that fall under the umbrella of security. Realizing that it is no longer possible، in light of the various challenges occurring in the world، to limit the dynamics of security to the military and political fields only، the main focus of the Copenhagen School was the theory of securitization based on the premise that any issue in international relations can be securitized as long as that issue poses a threat to survival. And the existence of an entity، but there are stages that the issue goes through، leading to the stage of securitization، and certain conditions and elements that must be present in that issue in terms of the position of the security actor، the security discourse، and the public. We analyzed the issue of climate change according to the assumptions of the securitization theory، and there are four factors that contributed to the politicization of the climate issue. It is the scientific consensus and the role of politics regarding climate change، financial financing، and international organizations، which we will discuss later. Iraq is among the countries most affected by climate change and environmental degradation، and especially the climate change crisis is increasing day after day to a very large extent، and its negative repercussions on Iraqi society and economy are increasing and worsening. In light of very weak government measures that do not rise to the level of being transformed into real measures to confront a major security threat that threatens food security، water security، energy security، and societal security.

This study analyzes the Balancing strategies of intermediate (secondary and small) countries in international relations. It discusses in detail the Hedging Balancing and Balancing of Threat. It analyzes the Balancing motives and its external elements.It analytically reviews the types of Balancing. The study then discusses Balancing as a foreign policy for medium and small powers in the international system. The study then reviews the most prominent alternative strategies to balancing, which are Bandwagoning, Bonding, Binding, and Beleaguering, Hiding.
This is done by testing three research hypotheses, the first is that balancing is a state's foreign policy that aims to equalize (power or threat) towards the most powerful states, and thus that state becomes less likely to dominate. This assumption is complemented by two other assumptions, which are that the Balancing theory is part of the balance of power theory, but a group of theoretical and applied differences makes them distinct. The second partial hypothesis is that positive Balancing aims to enhance the state's capabilities and consolidate its position in the international community, while negative Balancing strategy seeks to undermine the opponent's influence and reduce his capabilities.
The study reached research results, the most important of which is that balancing is a policy or behavior that aims to try to match, exceed, or prevent the power of a stronger state from dominating the state. Through: an alliance to confront the hegemonic state, provided that the Balancing here is proactive. The balance can also be internal, as the state builds its own capabilities, whether military or the socio-economic base on which it depends. The internal balance is clearer when the growth rate exceeds the rate of growth of other countries, especially in military power, and then the country balances out all the stronger powers by catching up with them.

This study discusses the possibility of a new revolutionary wave within the context of an Arab revolutionary pattern qualified to explode under the impact of political and economic factors. These factors are linked to the failures resulting from the 2011 wave, whether in terms of its failure to establish a genuine path for legal, democratic, and economic reform or the success of the political elite, which the revolutions sought to eliminate at that time, in regaining its dominance over political power before the first decade of these revolutions concluded. There are also socio-economic factors related to the chronic failure of the social policies of authoritarian regimes. These policies not only previously produced social inequality and exclusion but also continued to fail in evaluating and mitigating them after regaining power, especially after their exacerbation due to the recent global economic crises. These crises heightened the deterioration of the living conditions of Arab peoples, as broad segments of their middle class slipped into poverty, fragility, and unemployment, or found themselves on the margins of society. The study concludes that the gap between political systems and Arab peoples is widening, and the recorded decline in the social conditions of Arab peoples in their politically turbulent reality is likely to push them towards revolution once again. Consequently, reducing the social discontent that triggers revolutionary action now requires Arab systems to expedite comprehensive political, economic, and developmental reforms.

Countries always seek to obtain military information about their competitors, where the military attaché is the main source for this goal. Military attachés are posted at embassies and high commissions around the world, and oftentimes, these senior officers are the only visible representation of the armed forces in the countries in which they serve. The more professional the attaché is, the better his observations will be to obtain information and establish relations with the host country. The military attaché plays an effective role in implementing foreign policies in many countries of the world. Public international law does not impose any obligation on states to enter into diplomatic relations, or to send or receive diplomatic envoys, and therefore entering into an agreement and maintaining such relations is the state’s privilege. States are not obligated to send military attaches, nor required to accept them on their territories, yet they will continue to do so, because contemporary international relations, whether in times of peace or war, are inconceivable without appropriate military and security cooperation, in which the military attaché plays a very important role. Therefore, this study will attempt to explain this role of the military attaché and address some of the experiences of two countries, the United States and Canada. The paper examines that selection criterion and training process of the military attaché to support the current diplomatic environment and foreign policies. The study aims to make a general assessment of the role and importance of the military attaché, and is considered a contribution to defense studies on military attaches, at least their activities during their service or the system of military attaches and their role in foreign policy as a basic subject of study, especially with the scarcity of studies in this field.

In the framework of an international system filled with events, variables, and crises that leave their impacts on all its elements, the crises that obstructed the course of the European Union’s work were numerous and varied, ranging from direct crises in the European scope to external, regional and international crises. These crises made challenges to European Unity, so the European Union was present and realize to these variables and crises and their effects, and the necessity of confronting them by a unified European strategy can deal with, manage, adapt to, or find solutions to these crises through procedures, policies, aid packages, and strategies for each field. But, all of these European strategies to confront crises are not at the suitable level which puts and develops radical solutions to these crises. The European responses, represented by the strategies to confront the crises, were varied, some of them were successful and influential, even in a relative way, they expressed relative European consensus in some crises and contributed to some extent to the possibility of dealing with the crises, while other strategies failed in confronting other crises. The European strategies for dealing with crises were timid and modest strategies and did not always express the unified and collective European opinion. The influences and variables that were embodied in the shape of crises were stronger than the European will to confront them, that was also affected by the prioritization of the national and private interests of the European countries over the unitary and collective interests and the international pressures and influences that affected them. It leads to influencing European strategies and their effectiveness, all of which has implications for the status, strength and effectiveness of the European Union at the international level. Accordingly, the European Union needs stronger, more consensual and integrated positions and strategies among member states that express a unified European role and influence, enhance its international standing, and parallel the success it has achieved throughout the stages it has went through.

Parliament is the institution that has the right to formulate, discuss, and approve laws, and this is within the specific constitutional frameworks of each country. One of its tasks is also to monitor the implementation of these laws, legislation, and policies, in addition to being a representative of the people and emanating from them. It must be subject to constant evaluation in order to move in the direction Correct, and meets the people's needs and aspirations.

This research deals with Iraq's relations with neighboring non-Arab countries and their impact on political stability in Iraq after 2003. It also aims to analyze the factors that affected these relations and how they affected the internal political situation in Iraq, in addition to the challenges and opportunities that Iraq faced in building stable relations with these countries.

Diplomacy is the primary tool for implementing the foreign policy of states in order to achieve their goals and interests in their international interactions, In today's world, diplomacy has become more important than ever before, as a result of the changing nature of the international system after the Cold War and the different challenges facing states. The changes and challenges that have accompanied globalization have had a profound impact on international relations and have cast a shadow over diplomatic work and its practitioners, prompting the international system to move towards a more democratic approach to many issues in today's world.