Iraqi Journal of Oil and Gas Research

In order to create environmentally friendly products, this article focuses on reducing plastic waste by recycling polyethylene terephalate (PET) bottles (Green materials). Depolymerized polyethylene terephthalate (DPET) is created by combining PET with ethylene glycol and magnesium oxide (MgO) at a moderate temperature until the mixture reaches 179 oC (ethylene glycol's boiling point) for 40 to 50 minutes. This process first breaks down the polymer into a monomer. Second, bitumen is combined with plastic (either PET or DPET) to create modified bitumen (MB), then modified bitumen is mixed with sand, silica and gravel in order to produce friendly and sustainable construction materials . Bricks have been produced from mixing the modified bitumen with percentage (10-20)% ,sand in percentage (50-60 ) % and gravel in percentage (30)%. The characterization was carried out for the bricks in two steps : The first was to examine the modified bitumen to determine the best ratio that could be used in the mixture. The hardness test showed the best ratio of modified bitumen in percentages (60% of bitumen and 40% of PET or DPET) percentage is due to the formation of a functional group between bitumen and plastic which has appeared with FTIR characterization .
Secondly, the compressibility of the mixture was fully examined and the results showed the best compressive strength in 20% of modified bitumen with PET and 18% of modified bitumen with DPET. The compressive strength value is 7MPA and 6.9 MPA respectively. Finally , the recent results are compared with the previous research, and the results showed a reduction in the cost as a result of the use of waste materials and an increase in compression value.

Different solvents were used to produce polysulfone (PSF) membranes. These solvents included, Tetrahydrofuran(THF), N,N-dimethylacetamide(DMAc), Dichloromethane(DCM) and N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP). Gas permeability was greatest for the PSF membrane prepared with NMP, while selectivity was best for the THF membrane. Tetrahydrofuran (THF) was added into the casting solution at varying loadings (from 0% to 35%) to create asymmetric membranes with excellent gas separation performance. In SEM, the layer of the membrane that was prepared with NMP as the solvent is the thickest, while the layer of the membrane that was made with NMP/THF as solvent mixture is the thinnest. In gas permeability tests, as the amount of THF increases with NMP, it has the highest CO2/N2 selectivity and the lowest permeability. PSF/NMP has the highest permeabilities for CO2 (0.0728 GPU) and N2(0.0186 GPU), and the lowest selectivity for CO2/N2. Because of the thinner skin layer, CO2 and N2 are able to pass through more easily, while the low selectivity is the result of a surface defect in the form of a pin-hole. The maximum CO2/N2 selectivity is 8.69 for PSF/NMP/THF.

Most problems in the Zubair oil field are geomechanical which can lead to maximized the non-productive time and some of these troubles are reservoir compaction, porosity change, permeability change, wellbore instability, casing smash, pipe damage, and well kick. This study was to introduce a couple of the reservoir model and geomechanical model using the finite element method. The interesting data (logs, calibration data, drilling, and mud report) were utilized to build one dimensional model (1D) for each well using Techlog 2015 software. The 3D geomechanical model builds by Petrel 2017 software while the finite element technique was built using CMG 2018 program to forecast the stress states during production or injection operation in the field for 10 years.
The 1D model results show a good match between mechanical properties and calibration data which is mean a perfect mechanical earth model. Distribution results of all mechanical rock properties in the 3D geomechanical model showed that Shuaiba and Al-Hammar domes were not sufficient for stable wells, especially in the Tanuma formation. While the results of Mishrif formation showed more stability despite production. 3D Finite element model results showed that the total horizontal stress decreases during production and increases in injection wells, this would cause increases in the effective horizontal stress during production and a decrease for injection. The effective vertical stress increased during the production and decreased during injection wells.
Based on these results production could cause an increase in the differential stress which leads to rock shear failure.

Most problems in the Zubair oil field are geomechanical which can lead to maximized the non-productive time and some of these troubles are reservoir compaction, porosity change, permeability change, wellbore instability, casing smash, pipe damage, and well kick. This study was to introduce a couple of the reservoir model and geomechanical model using the finite element method. The interesting data (logs, calibration data, drilling, and mud report) were utilized to build one dimensional model (1D) for each well using Techlog 2015 software. The 3D geomechanical model builds by Petrel 2017 software while the finite element technique was built using CMG 2018 program to forecast the stress states during production or injection operation in the field for 10 years.
The 1D model results show a good match between mechanical properties and calibration data which is mean a perfect mechanical earth model. Distribution results of all mechanical rock properties in the 3D geomechanical model showed that Shuaiba and Al-Hammar domes were not sufficient for stable wells, especially in the Tanuma formation. While the results of Mishrif formation showed more stability despite production. 3D Finite element model results showed that the total horizontal stress decreases during production and increases in injection wells, this would cause increases in the effective horizontal stress during production and a decrease for injection. The effective vertical stress increased during the production and decreased during injection wells.
Based on these results production could cause an increase in the differential stress which leads to rock shear failure.

Reservoir predictions. It generally encompasses all coring, logging, testing, and sampling procedures. Almost 50 years ago, the evaluation of subsurface formations related to drilling oil wells got involved. It involves all techniques for coring, logging, testing, and sampling in general. It focuses on the process of interpreting logs and how to conduct lab tests that are important for evaluating formations below the surface, including a look at the fluids they represent. The casing is occasionally set to analyze the formations with more accuracy; as a result, this process is also considered. The scientific field of petrophysics of reservoir rocks is interested in researching porous materials' physical and chemical characteristics and the elements of reservoir rocks connected to pore and fluid distribution. Much research on the characteristics of various rocks, including their porosity, permeability, capillary pressure, hydrocarbon saturation, fluid properties, electrical resistivity, self- or natural potential, and radioactivity, has been carried out in recent years. The existence or absence of economic quantities of hydrocarbons in formations penetrated by or around the wellbore is assessed using these qualities and their relationships. This paper's main goal is to evaluate the historical evolution of the most popular methods for calculating petrophysics parameters in the lab and on the ground, mostly based on the researchers' scientists' knowledge of that field.

Reservoir predictions. It generally encompasses all coring, logging, testing, and sampling procedures. Almost 50 years ago, the evaluation of subsurface formations related to drilling oil wells got involved. It involves all techniques for coring, logging, testing, and sampling in general. It focuses on the process of interpreting logs and how to conduct lab tests that are important for evaluating formations below the surface, including a look at the fluids they represent. The casing is occasionally set to analyze the formations with more accuracy; as a result, this process is also considered. The scientific field of petrophysics of reservoir rocks is interested in researching porous materials' physical and chemical characteristics and the elements of reservoir rocks connected to pore and fluid distribution. Much research on the characteristics of various rocks, including their porosity, permeability, capillary pressure, hydrocarbon saturation, fluid properties, electrical resistivity, self- or natural potential, and radioactivity, has been carried out in recent years. The existence or absence of economic quantities of hydrocarbons in formations penetrated by or around the wellbore is assessed using these qualities and their relationships. This paper's main goal is to evaluate the historical evolution of the most popular methods for calculating petrophysics parameters in the lab and on the ground, mostly based on the researchers' scientists' knowledge of that field.

Reservoir predictions. It generally encompasses all coring, logging, testing, and sampling procedures. Almost 50 years ago, the evaluation of subsurface formations related to drilling oil wells got involved. It involves all techniques for coring, logging, testing, and sampling in general. It focuses on the process of interpreting logs and how to conduct lab tests that are important for evaluating formations below the surface, including a look at the fluids they represent. The casing is occasionally set to analyze the formations with more accuracy; as a result, this process is also considered. The scientific field of petrophysics of reservoir rocks is interested in researching porous materials' physical and chemical characteristics and the elements of reservoir rocks connected to pore and fluid distribution. Much research on the characteristics of various rocks, including their porosity, permeability, capillary pressure, hydrocarbon saturation, fluid properties, electrical resistivity, self- or natural potential, and radioactivity, has been carried out in recent years. The existence or absence of economic quantities of hydrocarbons in formations penetrated by or around the wellbore is assessed using these qualities and their relationships. This paper's main goal is to evaluate the historical evolution of the most popular methods for calculating petrophysics parameters in the lab and on the ground, mostly based on the researchers' scientists' knowledge of that field.

Reservoir predictions. It generally encompasses all coring, logging, testing, and sampling procedures. Almost 50 years ago, the evaluation of subsurface formations related to drilling oil wells got involved. It involves all techniques for coring, logging, testing, and sampling in general. It focuses on the process of interpreting logs and how to conduct lab tests that are important for evaluating formations below the surface, including a look at the fluids they represent. The casing is occasionally set to analyze the formations with more accuracy; as a result, this process is also considered. The scientific field of petrophysics of reservoir rocks is interested in researching porous materials' physical and chemical characteristics and the elements of reservoir rocks connected to pore and fluid distribution. Much research on the characteristics of various rocks, including their porosity, permeability, capillary pressure, hydrocarbon saturation, fluid properties, electrical resistivity, self- or natural potential, and radioactivity, has been carried out in recent years. The existence or absence of economic quantities of hydrocarbons in formations penetrated by or around the wellbore is assessed using these qualities and their relationships. This paper's main goal is to evaluate the historical evolution of the most popular methods for calculating petrophysics parameters in the lab and on the ground, mostly based on the researchers' scientists' knowledge of that field.

Reservoir predictions. It generally encompasses all coring, logging, testing, and sampling procedures. Almost 50 years ago, the evaluation of subsurface formations related to drilling oil wells got involved. It involves all techniques for coring, logging, testing, and sampling in general. It focuses on the process of interpreting logs and how to conduct lab tests that are important for evaluating formations below the surface, including a look at the fluids they represent. The casing is occasionally set to analyze the formations with more accuracy; as a result, this process is also considered. The scientific field of petrophysics of reservoir rocks is interested in researching porous materials' physical and chemical characteristics and the elements of reservoir rocks connected to pore and fluid distribution. Much research on the characteristics of various rocks, including their porosity, permeability, capillary pressure, hydrocarbon saturation, fluid properties, electrical resistivity, self- or natural potential, and radioactivity, has been carried out in recent years. The existence or absence of economic quantities of hydrocarbons in formations penetrated by or around the wellbore is assessed using these qualities and their relationships. This paper's main goal is to evaluate the historical evolution of the most popular methods for calculating petrophysics parameters in the lab and on the ground, mostly based on the researchers' scientists' knowledge of that field.

The Deep Water Disposal project was initiated in 1995 with the aim of managing excess water output from the primary facility. The injection into a shared deep formation has resulted in a significant boost to the pressure in nearby fields. This effect can be observed through pressure measurements, which demonstrate that the field was in a state of depletion before the commencement of water disposal. However, the pressure stabilized once stable disposal rates were established. Recently, a decline in nearby fields' pressure has been noticed in response to lower disposal rates[5]. The objective of this study is to evaluate the level of pressure support in adjacent areas resulting from the volume of waste disposal and establish the necessary disposal rate needed to sustain the desired pressures. Ultimately, the goal is to reclassify the relevant portion of deep-water disposal volume as proper water injection[1], to avoid any unnecessary decommissioning of the disposal wells and hence losing this energy source to the reservoir. This Novel approach of mixing operational and reservoir data deals directly with the topic of voidage replacement, pressure decline, reservoir behavior, impact of deep water disposal and water injection of performance, and conducting simple forecasting methodology that is fit for purpose to come up with practical results to be directly applied in a real life situation.

The Deep Water Disposal project was initiated in 1995 with the aim of managing excess water output from the primary facility. The injection into a shared deep formation has resulted in a significant boost to the pressure in nearby fields. This effect can be observed through pressure measurements, which demonstrate that the field was in a state of depletion before the commencement of water disposal. However, the pressure stabilized once stable disposal rates were established. Recently, a decline in nearby fields' pressure has been noticed in response to lower disposal rates[5]. The objective of this study is to evaluate the level of pressure support in adjacent areas resulting from the volume of waste disposal and establish the necessary disposal rate needed to sustain the desired pressures. Ultimately, the goal is to reclassify the relevant portion of deep-water disposal volume as proper water injection[1], to avoid any unnecessary decommissioning of the disposal wells and hence losing this energy source to the reservoir. This Novel approach of mixing operational and reservoir data deals directly with the topic of voidage replacement, pressure decline, reservoir behavior, impact of deep water disposal and water injection of performance, and conducting simple forecasting methodology that is fit for purpose to come up with practical results to be directly applied in a real life situation.

The Deep Water Disposal project was initiated in 1995 with the aim of managing excess water output from the primary facility. The injection into a shared deep formation has resulted in a significant boost to the pressure in nearby fields. This effect can be observed through pressure measurements, which demonstrate that the field was in a state of depletion before the commencement of water disposal. However, the pressure stabilized once stable disposal rates were established. Recently, a decline in nearby fields' pressure has been noticed in response to lower disposal rates[5]. The objective of this study is to evaluate the level of pressure support in adjacent areas resulting from the volume of waste disposal and establish the necessary disposal rate needed to sustain the desired pressures. Ultimately, the goal is to reclassify the relevant portion of deep-water disposal volume as proper water injection[1], to avoid any unnecessary decommissioning of the disposal wells and hence losing this energy source to the reservoir. This Novel approach of mixing operational and reservoir data deals directly with the topic of voidage replacement, pressure decline, reservoir behavior, impact of deep water disposal and water injection of performance, and conducting simple forecasting methodology that is fit for purpose to come up with practical results to be directly applied in a real life situation.

Building a rock-type (facies) model is critical in the process of constructing the geological model.The facies model utilizes the facies obtained from the different characterization methods to represent the structure and the geology of the studied reservoir. Therefore, the importance of building a 3D rock-type model is to distribute the petrophysical properties depending on the rock facies to reflect the actual distribution and achieve a realistic model.Khasib formation in Amara oil field is mainly composed of limestone and exhibits a high degree of heterogeneities in its petrophysical and geological features, showing a complicated porosity-permeability relationship. Hence, the formation should be characterized by facies with specific property relationships and use these facies to build an accurate rock-type model to represent the geological rock modeling for this carbonate formation.The Rock-Type model for Khasib formation has been constructed using the facies obtained from flow zone indicator and cluster analysis characterization methods, these facies were distributed with the PETREL software by applying the sequential indicator simulation (SIS) algorithm.The 3D Rock- type model establishes that a different rock type characterized each unit within Khasib formation; the reservoir units (KH11, KH12, and KH2) were characterized by the presence of RT-1, RT-2,andRT-3, which represent the best, good, and intermediate reservoir quality rocks, respectively. The best rock type RT-1 with the best reservoir petrophysical properties was only noticed in unit KH2. The non-reservoir units (Khasib, Base KH11, Base KH12, and Base KH2) were characterized by RT-4 and RT-5, which reflect the bad rock quality with non-reservoir properties.

The state of the economy today highlights the requirement for better engineering designs in drilling, well completion, and reservoir production processes. Continuous profiles of rock mechanical properties are required for all of the aforementioned activities. Elastic and strength parameters are two categories that can be used to categorize rock mechanical parameters. Elastic parameters that describe the behavior and tendency of rock to fluctuation or fracture under stress include Young's modulus, bulk module, shear modulus, and Poisson's ratio. To prevent various drilling issues including well kicks pipe sticking, and wellbore instability, it is crucial to understand the elastic properties of reservoir rock. It is therefore conceivable to have an accurate estimation of the rock elastic behavior. The various techniques for estimating the various elastic properties are reviewed in this work. Both a static and dynamic calculation can be done for elastic characteristics. When employing static methods, the elastic modulus can be calculated by measuring it on real cores in a lab using pricy procedures. Whereas well logs are utilized in dynamic methods, a quicker and less expensive technique, to calculate the parameters governing rock elastic properties.

The state of the economy today highlights the requirement for better engineering designs in drilling, well completion, and reservoir production processes. Continuous profiles of rock mechanical properties are required for all of the aforementioned activities. Elastic and strength parameters are two categories that can be used to categorize rock mechanical parameters. Elastic parameters that describe the behavior and tendency of rock to fluctuation or fracture under stress include Young's modulus, bulk module, shear modulus, and Poisson's ratio. To prevent various drilling issues including well kicks pipe sticking, and wellbore instability, it is crucial to understand the elastic properties of reservoir rock. It is therefore conceivable to have an accurate estimation of the rock elastic behavior. The various techniques for estimating the various elastic properties are reviewed in this work. Both a static and dynamic calculation can be done for elastic characteristics. When employing static methods, the elastic modulus can be calculated by measuring it on real cores in a lab using pricy procedures. Whereas well logs are utilized in dynamic methods, a quicker and less expensive technique, to calculate the parameters governing rock elastic properties.