Magazine of historical studies and archaeology

Financial transactions are the legal rulings that regulate people's dealings with money, whether these transactions are by way of exchange, such as selling, leasing, etc., or by way of donation, such as gifts, mortgages, and transfers. The occurrence of these transactions between people is considered one of the necessities that people cannot do without. Therefore, Islamic law came to regulate and control these transactions between people. Among the financial transactions that Imam Fakhr al-Din al-Razi mentioned are

Back-to-back art in Mesopotamian art is an artistic style that depends on distributing artistic elements or some of them in a single scene in a staggered manner, meaning that each of those elements gives its back to the other, whether they are human, animal, or composite creatures. Those elements may stagger with each other directly, meaning without an element in between them, or the staggering may be indirect in the case of an element in the middle of the staggered elements. The staggered elements may match, be similar, or differ according to the purpose and meaning of the artistic scene. The staggered elements may be groups, meaning that two or more elements stagger with two or more elements in a single artistic scene, or the staggering may be partial in the scene, meaning that each of those elements gives its back to the other with the head turned backwards

Disagreements between Iraq and Kuwait arose over the settlement of debts accumulated by the Iraqi government during its war with the Iranian regime, in addition to border disputes with Kuwait. Turkey and its strategic location played an important role in the war, especially since the American bases that were supposed to be used to force Iraq to withdraw from the occupation of Kuwait were located on Turkish territory. Since Turkey believed in amicable solutions, it voted in favor of the Organization of the Islamic Conference resolutions on the Iraqi-Kuwaiti issue and supported all of them.

Upon carefully examining Ozal's views and positions during the Second Gulf War, it can be noted that his approach to war and peace shifted from demanding that "peace must be preserved and the crisis resolved by peaceful means" to the possibility of resolving the crisis by peaceful means ("war may break out"), and finally to the rhetoric that "a hot war is inevitable," especially with the intransigence of the Iraqi government and its implicit threat to the Turkish government by Iraqi Vice President Taha Yassin Ramadan during his visit to Ankara. Furthermore, the Turkish government sought to win the favor of the United States, NATO countries, and the Gulf states to preserve and enhance its interests in the region.

This study addresses one of the sensitive issues in Iraqi society—namely, the challenges of extremism and division—by analyzing the role of the Arbaeen pilgrimage as a broad religious and social phenomenon capable of promoting the values of coexistence and peacebuilding. The study aims to identify the role of the Arbaeen pilgrimage in reinforcing social values and fostering peace, its impact on individuals and society, as well as the relationship between religious rituals performed during the Arbaeen pilgrimage and social values. It also seeks to explore the main psychological and social effects that the pilgrimage generates among participants.

The study employed the social survey method using a descriptive-analytical approach and targeted a purposive sample of (250) participants, including visiting Imam Hussein (peace be upon him), volunteers serving them, and shop and hotel owners in the city of Karbala.

The study reached a set of conclusions, the most significant of which are as follows: (74.8%) of participants stated that the pilgrimage encourages acceptance of others and respect for cultural diversity; (82.4%) confirmed that it helps bring viewpoints closer and overcome differences; (80.8%) indicated that it enhances peaceful coexistence among various groups; and (92.8%) believed that it contributes to spreading a culture of dialogue and acceptance of differing opinions.

The study concludes that the Arbaeen pilgrimage serves as a dense social and religious platform for generating moral and communicative capital that strengthens altruism, generosity, and dialogue while reducing sectarian and social tensions, thus making it an effective tool for consolidating societal peace.

The subject of the cover was chosen to represent his political and administrative activity in the Fatimid state 358-567AH as aresalt of the lack of adetailed study,what some researchers have addressed doesn,t exceed afew lines in their research and studies. The owner of the curtain gains its importance as one of the civilized systems in the Fatimid state, and some of them had an effective impact on the state,s policy by carrying out certain tasks assigned to them. The study was divided into two sections preceded by an introduction. The first section included an introduction to the owner of the veil, and then addressed his political activity in the Fatimid era, with afocus on the most important events to which the owner of the veil contributed. The second section included his administrative activity and finally the study was concluded with a conclusion

The last years of the monarchy in Iraq are one of the most important stages of Iraq's modern political history, as the transformations witnessed by the Iraqi internal reality played an important role in the collapse of the monarchy driven by the many changes at the Arab, regional, and international levels, and in this research we will address : The last meeting of the Council of Notables in Iraq (1957-1958) is a historical study, showing the opinions and positions of notables in the Iraqi Council of Notables through the life of this council, which extended from 1925 until the fall of the monarchy, which showed that its members sided with the people in many of the positions and opinions presented by its members.

Aztec military and warfare education reflected a profound fusion between religion and battle, where war was seen not merely as a political act but as a sacred duty to the gods. The Aztec warrior grew up believing that combat was a form of worship, and before every campaign, prayers and invocations were offered to seek divine favor. Priests played an essential role in guiding the army, choosing the days of battle, blessing weapons, and interpreting celestial signs that foretold victory or defeat.

Captivity held deep spiritual meaning; prisoners were considered divine gifts, sacrificed in ritual ceremonies as offerings of gratitude for victory. Religious and military practices extended into households, where fathers taught their sons bravery, discipline, and reverence for the sacred duty of war.

Women who died during childbirth were honored as equals to fallen warriors, as br had given their lives for the continuation of life itself.

Military education served as a path toward both spiritual elevation and social prestige. Enrollment in military schools represented not only physical training but also moral and spiritual refinement. Trainees lived under strict regimens of diet, rest, and discipline, and were instructed in music and ritual at the House of Song, where they learned the harmony between strength and spirituality. A young warrior's first battle marked his initiation into glory, with his status determined by the number of captives he could seize-each captive elevating his title and honor. Thus, Aztec military education was a sacred journey that united faith and warfare, forging warriors who fought not only for victory, but for eternal remembrance

There is no doubt that the richness of Arab-Islamic thought stems from the diversity of ideas and trends within Arab-Islamic civilization. Al-Sindi is considered one of the pillars of Arab-Islamic civilization, having left us a great legacy, enriching the Arab-Islamic library with his numerous scholarly works. His book, "Mukhtar al-Atwar fi Atwar al-Mukhtar," was the focus of our attention. In honor of al-Sindi's (d. 1138 AH/1725 CE) scholarly contributions, in remembrance of the era in which he lived, which was full of scholarly and intellectual activity, and in commemoration of his vast knowledge, the primary motivation for choosing the title of this research was "The Resources of al-Sindi (d. 1138 AH/1725 CE) and his Methodology in His Book, "Mukhtar al-Atwar fi Atwar al-Mukhtar.".

This research studies and analyzes the concept of the lineage of the Prophet's family as it appears in the Holy Quran. It seeks to clarify the connotations of the term "the Prophet's family" in various Quranic verses, and to determine who is included in this lineage according to what is stated in the books of interpretation. It also aims to understand the importance and status that the Holy Quran has given to this blessed lineage, and the virtues and duties associated with it.

The research reviews the Qur’anic verses that prove the virtue and status of the Prophet’s family, and discusses the various interpretive interpretations, whether those that limit the lineage to the wives of the Prophet, may God bless him and grant him peace, or those that expand the concept to include his relatives from Banu Hashim and Banu Abd al-Muttalib, or those that specify it to Ali ibn Abi Talib, Fatima al-Zahra, al-Hasan and al-Husayn (peace be upon them).

The research sheds light on the linguistic and historical contexts of the revelation of these verses, taking into account the statements of commentators, hadith scholars, and the Prophet's biography, as well as the different viewpoints regarding the limits of this affiliation and its impact on virtue and status.

The research aims, in summary, to provide a clear understanding, based on Quranic texts and reliable interpretations, of the concept of the lineage of the Prophet's family, and to demonstrate the importance the Holy Quran attaches to this pure lineage, while emphasizing the necessity of adhering to the Quran and the Prophetic Sunnah in defining this concept and avoiding exaggeration or neglect of their rights.

This thesis, entitled "Iranian-Egyptian Relations in Light of Al-Ahram Newspaper (1970-1981)," examines the nature of relations as reflected in Al-Ahram newspaper, one of the most important Arab newspapers that covered the news and reports on relations between Egypt and Iran during this period. It sheds light on relations between Egypt and Iran in various political and cultural fields. Under the rule of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat, whose reign coincided with that of the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, relations between the two countries during this period were characterized by development, cooperation, and openness in all fields.

This research aims to shed light on the covenants of security and peace and their impact on the Arab Islamic state, reflecting its general conditions and their positive and negative political and administrative consequences. Security, or a covenant of peace, was a measure introduced under specific political circumstances to serve as a basis for resolving disputes and wars, rejecting conflicts, and fostering a sense of protection, safety, and stability. This is sanctioned by Islamic law, and its concepts were clarified by the Prophet Muhammad in his Sunnah. The research aims to bring the message of Islam closer to people's minds and hearts, and to introduce them to the just Sharia and noble ethics. Covenants of security involve two parties, each with their own rights and obligations, and conditions that must be adhered to by both. The research also aims to examine the political and administrative aspects of the covenants of security granted by the Abbasid caliphs during the Buyid and Seljuk periods, and during the Abbasid state before its fall.

The history of the Iraqi Army represents an important phase in the history of modern Iraqi politics. Perhaps the significance of this subject lies in the challenges and difficulties it faced since its establishment in 1921. Prominent among these challenges was the issue of compulsory conscription (or mandatory recruitment) and the Iraqi government's attempt to strengthen the army with Iraqi personnel from all categories, making the army's duties the protection of Iraq's external borders and standing against potential threats. This objective contradicted the British viewpoint, which sought to keep the Iraqi Army weak, limiting its duties to the protection of Iraqi internal security.

Economic cuneiform texts are among the most important and extensive

cuneiform sources from which the economic and daily life of ancient Mesopotamia can be studied. These texts reflect every detail of life in those period, from daily transactions to economic crises and economic prosperity.The successive period that passed through ancient Mesopotamia provided us with numerous types of economic texts, including labor wage records, sales and purchase contracts, agricultural land lease contracts, delivery lists, and other types. These texts number of thousands, and upon studying them, we can arrive at a study of the economic and daily life of the ancient Mesopotamia individual across various, ranging from the early Sumerian, represented by the Dawn of the Dynasties, to the late Babylonian efar, represented by the or the Old Babylonian.

The topic of the religious role of the Kushites in ruling ancient Egypt (715-656 BC) is important, as the Kushites ruled Egypt, forming the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty in the history of the pharaonic dynasties that ruled the country, focusing on the religious aspect that unites the Kushites and the ancient Egyptians in governing the country and highlighting their role as liberators of the land from foreign rule by claiming descent from the ancient Egyptian gods. They believed that Egypt and Kush were one land connected by a strong bond of religion.

The importance of Mesopotamia lies not only in its geographical boundaries and historical period, but also in its continuous cultural heritage, which formed a foundation upon which later civilizations in the ancient Near East, up to the Islamic era, relied. Its influence on architecture and the arts persisted through mechanisms of cultural transmission and cross-fertilization. Therefore, studying this heritage is essential for understanding the roots of Islamic architecture, and Seljuk architecture in particular, given its clear echo of ancient Mesopotamian innovations. All civilizations in the world exchange ideas, leading to the emergence of similarities resulting from external influences. The influence of architectural and artistic styles among the world's civilizations is one of the outcomes of this cross-fertilization, which occurs due to multiple factors. Such as the methods of trade exchange and their impact on shaping the cultural landscape throughout the ages, wars and military invasions, as well as migrations and settlement, in addition to the use of craftsmen as intermediaries to transmit influences, who had an impact on various architectural aspects, including (huge entrances, arches and vaults, columns, domes, muqarnas, mihrab, minbar, minaret, iwan, decorations, and building materials).

This study examines the political activity of Moroccan Jews during the mid-1960s, a period marked by significant transformation following King Hassan II’s ascension to the throne and the broader regional effects of the Arab–Israeli conflict. The research demonstrates that the Moroccan state continued to affirm shared national identity and protect Jewish civil rights, even as Zionist propaganda sought to encourage Jewish emigration and create division between Jews and their national environment. The study also shows that Moroccan Jews did not form a single political bloc; their positions varied between integration within national political parties and advocacy for coexistence, while others were influenced by external pressures. Meanwhile, the royal palace maintained a consistent policy of inclusion and protection, considering Jews as an essential component of Morocco’s historical identity, which helped preserve their social and political presence despite the challenges of the period.

This research examines the leather industries in Mesopotamia, focusing on the raw materials used from slaughtered or dead animals, the manufacturing processes, and daily uses. It relies on documented cuneiform texts and archaeological evidence. The study also highlights the role of leather in the economic and social life, and presents examples of museum tablets that confirm the widespread and diverse use of leather during that era

The Lebanese Civil War of 1975 is considered one of the most significant wars in history. Lebanon's strategic geographical location and its sectarian diversity played a major role in the outbreak of this war, in addition to political, economic, and social factors. It must be noted that Lebanon's proximity to the Middle East and Palestine was a key factor, facilitating the intervention of numerous parties, both directly and indirectly. Lebanon became an arena for settling scores, which fueled the flames of war and discouraged peaceful solutions. The British newspaper, The Guardian, attempted from the outset to provide extensive coverage of the war, analyzing events and highlighting the sectarian and regional complexities of the conflict. At the same time, it maintained a neutral stance, striving to explain the political and sectarian complexities that plagued Lebanon.

We will also examine some of the positions taken, including that of the United States, whose stance was lukewarm. The US showed no interest in or assistance to Lebanon in 1975. This may stem from whether it approved of the war or was preoccupied with other matters, a point we will explore in our research. Keywords: (The Guardian, Civil War, Foreign Interventions)

The project is titled the "Digitales Bonner Totenbuch-Papyrus" (The Digital Bonn Project for the Book of the Dead Papyri) and is accessible through its official website: https://tottenbuch.awk.nrw.de.

Launched in 2004, the project aims to document and digitally inventory the Book of the Dead papyri held in museums and university or institute libraries across Europe.

This initiative is founded on a scientific collaboration between the University of Bonn (founded in 1818) and the University of Cologne (founded in 1388), two of the most prominent academic institutions in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia, based on the principle of interdisciplinary synergy. The University of Bonn contributes its specialized academic expertise in Egyptology, while the University of Cologne provides its advanced technical proficiency in digital technologies and database construction.

This cooperation has taken a practical path through the creation of a comprehensive digital database, which aims to unify the scattered fragments of ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead papyri held in museums and libraries worldwide. The implementation of this methodology follows a sequential workflow, beginning with the inventory and documentation phase, which involves locating these papyri and conducting physical and bibliographical examinations. It then proceeds to the digitization and access phase, which includes producing high-resolution digital copies, followed by the cataloging phase. This cataloging phase starts by assigning a unique serial number to each papyrus and classifying it precisely according to its thematic content and chronological period.

The methodology does not stop at this point; it also enables in-depth textual studies and the tracing of the papyri's historical origins. This tracing relies on an integrated analysis that includes the temporal context, the writing materials used, and the locations of the scribal workshops where they were produced.

A relatively new branch of archaeology, forensic archaeology, contributes to providing the justice system with accurate scientific information about genocide sites and their contents. This information is crucial in proving that a crime has been committed, as well as possibly indicating who committed it.

With the development of archaeology in the twentieth century, its methods and techniques were employed in the service of forensic work and genocide sites, and contributed to determining their characteristics, composition and contents.

The research deals with a geographical area in Africa, it has element of an ancient civilization, built approach not the civilizations that stood in Mesopotamia and the nile valley and other civilizations, but it considers in the point of view of its citizen a civilizations prond of its identity and the elements of its entity. at a time when that region (Africa) lives according to a simple system based on hunting, grazing as a mean of living and from the branchs of trees and beads to cover private parts. and from the mud, wood a way to build houses, and sanctifing kings, considering them as a god, as well as sanctifing sankes and offering sacrifices to the gods, finally Islam religion came to change all that peacefully and gradually without contradict with principles that people used to do there. The wonderful thing is that Islam did not deal firmly with issues that are inconsistent with the doctrine and destroyed them gradually, Islam did not fight African identity, nor impose on the population to abandon their identity as an African citizen and converted them to be Arab by force, but on the contrary. strengthened in the hearts of people their identity more over gave them a wider identity which is comprehensive identity of islam as it given to all those live under its banners, and another element, the language. Islam did not try to remove it, or force the residents to write and speak Arabic Language. their language remained prevalent and they are at the same time accept. The Arabic Language as the Language of their new religion , which the exact opposite of what Europeans did when they arrived in Africa through the imposition of English or Spanish or French on the population while the African proud of his beliefs , but he accepted Islam as a new religion because it calls to tolerance , love and kindness in the call by preachers , whether they are traders or migrants or scholars , so the shifting and changings which happened in Africa were very useful to region through integration into an ancient , coherent civilization which is Islamic civilization.

Introduction Mecca in the Hijaz region was not the only religious destination in the Arabian Peninsula in ancient times to which Arab sects made pilgrimages. Rather, there were many religious houses and temples built in the same cubic shape and style in different locations, which were called (Kaabas). These temples witnessed rituals somewhat similar to those that were prevalent in the pre-Islamic era. The believers in each Kaaba would make pilgrimages to it and offer sacrifices to the idols erected in front of it, believing that it was the daughter of God on earth, and they would pray in front of it and circumambulate it as well

This study is a serious attempt to know the impact left by one of the many Andalusian cities during the Islamic rule over it, and the Andalusian city of LIRIA is one of this cultural heritage that came out with it, as did many Andalusian cities and Islamic capitals in the East and the West, and since those cities were full of men who were distinguished by their various sciences in specializations and types, that is what the study wanted to clarify and stand on in the history of civilization of Andalusia (92-897 AH / 711-1492 AD) during the Arab and Islamic rule over it.

This study examines the issue of political sectarianism in Lebanon as one of the most entrenched structural obstacles to the establishment of an effective democratic system. Employing a. historical-analytical methodology, the research traces the trajectory of the emergence and. entrenchment of sectarianism as a foundational component of governance, from the moment of independence in 1943 to the year 2023. It analyzes the interplay between the historical legacy of French colonialism and the contemporary challenges facing the Lebanese s The study highlights the critical political and social transformations that have contributed to institutionalizing sectarianism as an organizing principle of constitutional institutions, beginning with the foundational National Pact, through the Taif Agreement of 1989—which restructured the political system in the aftermath of the civil war—and culminating in the October 17, 2019 uprising.

The findings reveal that political sectarianism in Lebanon has evolved beyond a provisional historical compromise to become a deeply entrenched institutional framework. This system was reinforced during the French Mandate and further consolidated by the practices of successive political elites. The study demonstrates that the lack of genuine political will among these elites has obstructed any serious attempt to abolish sectarian governance.

While the 2019 uprising represented a pivotal moment in the evolution of Lebanese political consciousness in rejecting sectarianism, it ultimately failed to bring about a sustainable structural transformation, due to the persistent influence of sectarian dynamics and the resistance of entrenched political forces.

This study addresses an important personality in Islamic history, one of the Tabiun who played a significant and influential role during the Umayyad period, particularly in Bilad al-Sham and North Africa in the second century AH. Within this context, the Tabi and hadith transmitter Ismail ibn Ubayd Allah ibn Abi al-Muhajir al-Makhzumi gained distinction and prominence among scholars as one of the leading narrators who contributed to transmitting hadith from the generation of the Companions, with whom he interacted and from whom he received religious knowledge. He earned the trust of hadith scholars and, in addition, transmitted historical accounts concerning the Umayyad caliphs as documented in historical works and biographical dictionaries.

The significance of this research lies in highlighting the scholarly status of this figure through a study of his intellectual and academic career in Bilad al-Sham, and in examining his religious and political role in North Africa. He made a notable contribution to hadith and jurisprudence, to the extent that he was counted among the most reliable scholars of al-Sham. This scholarly credibility earned him the confidence of the Umayyad caliphs. Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan entrusted him with the task of educating and training his sons due to his wisdom, purity of heart, eloquence, and mastery of religious sciences.

His political role emerged when Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz appointed him as governor of North Africa, where he combined the administration of the province with calling the Berbers to Islam. He succeeded in fully integrating them into Islam, thereby establishing political and social stability in the province.

Keywords: Ismail ibn Ubayd Allah , Ifriqiya , Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf , Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz

Research Objectives

To highlight the personality and scholarly status of Ismail ibn Ubayd Allah.
To analyze his historical narrations and link them to the political and social context of the Umayyad period.
To clarify the role of the Tabiun in preserving and documenting the events of early Islamic history.
Methodology
The study employs an inductive-analytical method by collecting narrations related to Ismail from historical sources, biographical dictionaries, and hadith literature, and then analyzing them using a critical comparative approach. It also draws on the evaluations of hadith critics in al-jarh wa al-tadil (criticism and accreditation), in order to assess the reliability of these narrations and their impact on the writing of early Islamic history.

The importance of the research lies in the clear role of Iraqi scholars in assuming religious duties in Mecca. This interest came through the Abbasid caliphs and Mamluk sultans’ interest in Mecca in general, and the Grand Mosque in particular, through their continuous keenness to follow up on the affairs of the Grand Mosque, as it is It represents the Qiblah of Islam, and a meeting point for scholars of the Islamic world from various cities, where the transmitted and rational sciences are discussed. It was the custom of caliphs, kings and sultans to appoint competent scholars to hold religious positions, who had all the qualifications for them, in addition to their status in their society. This interest came from ancient times, as it existed since the time of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of God be upon him), as it was important and took precedence over other positions.

The research deals with the civilizational aspects of the city of Arjan, from the elements of the population and strata of society to agriculture, industry, trade and currencies that the residents of the city of Arjan depended on at that time, as the city of Arjan is one of the main railway cities in the province of Fars

The elements of society in argan were only a mixture of Persians and Arabs, and also in terms of Customs and traditions in that city, it is certain that the Vitality expressed by the qualities as courage and determination is the best asset on which human virtues are based

Argan had a special place among the Persian kings, where it was considered one of their holy cities, because it had one of the Holy fire houses of the Persians

As for the markets, the city of Arjan was famous for its many markets for its many buildings and architecture, as for agriculture in the city of Arjan, it is one of the main crafts and worked by the majority of the population before the Islamic conquest and after the conquest, the Islamic regime's care for agriculture and agriculture was large and famous, agriculture occupied large areas of the city, but as for trade, the commercial movement in Arjan has witnessed a remarkable activity, especially since there is a large commercial network connecting Arjan and the cities of Fars province .

Aramaic culture is one of the most important and influential cultural civilizations in the history and civilizations of the peoples of the ancient Near East. Its influence continued until the first centuries AD, and later until the Islamic era. The aim of this research is to study the mutual influences and impacts between Aramaic cultures and Arab-Islamic civilization, and the significant contributions they made. These contributions and impacts are represented by linguistic and cultural aspects, as well as archaeological and historical evidence, which is the scope of this study.

The study aims to identify the trends of public opinion within Medina after it fell under the control of the Mamluk state, by identifying the trends of public opinion regarding the appointment and assignment of positions by the Mamluk authority within the city, its position on the Ashraf Syndicate, and its role in resolving the crises that plagued the city during that period. The study concluded that the Mamluks gained the trust of the people of the city in most cases, which confirms the positivity of public opinion indicators during that period of Medina’s history.

This study examines the social customs and traditions of the Hui Muslim community in China during the period between 1911 and 1925, a historical phase marked by profound political and cultural transformations following the fall of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of the Chinese Republic. The research aims to analyze the social structure of the Hui, explore their religious and cultural practices, and investigate the nature of their internal social interactions as well as their relations with other ethnic groups within Chinese society.

Employing a comparative methodology, the study identifies elements of continuity and change in the Hui’s social life across the pre-1911 and post-1911 periods, with particular attention to family structure, religious and secular education, religious rituals and communal observances, economic roles, and patterns of social communication. The research also examines the impact of governmental policies and the emerging republican order on the cultural and religious identity of the Hui, and assesses the community’s ability to maintain its distinctiveness amid shifting sociopolitical conditions.

Drawing upon a diverse range of historical and anthropological sources, this study offers an in-depth understanding of how the Hui Muslims managed to balance the preservation of their Islamic identity with their integration into the new structures of the republican state. Their experience represents a significant example of the interaction between religious identity and modern national transformations.

Aleppo witnessed in the Ayyubid era an intellectual and cultural activity at various levels, and in addition to its war importance, intellectual elites appeared in various sciences as well as attracting scientists from the Arab Islamic state in various scientific specializations, which shows the importance of its intellectual and cultural development and its contributions to various sciences.

Aleppo's interest in social sciences led to an activity in Aleppo in the fields of history, geography, medicine and science of philosophy, which helped document the conditions of society, study its habits and systems, and this interest contributed to highlighting the role of Aleppo as a center for intellectual and cultural dialogue and the place of exchanging experiences between scientists and researchers in the various mechanisms of social life.

The texts of this study date back to the Old Akkadian period (2371-2230 BC), which was characterized by texts with economic content and diversity, and which are among the most important sources of our information about the economic and administrative system in this period.

The texts of this study are confiscated texts preserved in the Iraqi Museum. According to the form of the text and the method of writing on it, and based on previous studies, they date back to the ancient Akkadian period. We can say that some of them belong to the city of Umma, such as the mention of the name ur-dšara2, and the god šara is the local god of the city of Umma, and he is the god of plants and greenery in Mesopotamia.

The article included three cuneiform texts with varying contents. The first text represents a census of people with professions, the second text included barley expenses, while the last text included a census of animals.

Muhammad Ibn Mankali (d. 784 AH/1282 AD) is one of the few Muslim historians who carved out a unique path in writing, specifically specializing in military affairs and army organization. He is arguably the most prominent among them, given the immense scholarly legacy he left in this field. .
This historian hailed from a family deeply involved in military service and the army. He lived during the rise of the Mamluk Sultanate and was no less passionate about military work. He chose to pursue a career in the military, rising through the ranks to the highest position in the Mamluk army: Atabeg al-Jind (Commander-in-Chief.
This position was reserved for those possessing exceptional competence, brilliance, and loyalty. Furthermore, Muhammad ibn Mankali benefited from his long and continuous service in the army, applying his experience and expertise in the military establishment to author no fewer than fourteen books, all dealing with military affairs. Among these works were his own opinions and guidance on the preparation and formation of armies. This research summarizes Muhammad Ibn Mankali\'s views on the preparation and formation of Islamic armies. .