Philosophy Journal

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

This research aims to explore Plato’s conception of peace as a comprehensive state of moral, political, and social harmony that transcends the traditional understanding of peace as merely the absence of war and armed conflict. The study examines the close relationship established by Plato between the attainment of peace and the construction of the ideal state, founded upon justice, sound moral education, and the supremacy of virtue as the fundamental principles ensuring political stability and social cohesion. Furthermore, the research critically analyzes the major objections directed at Plato’s political philosophy, particularly its idealistic nature, its hierarchical social structure, and the practical limitations associated with its implementation. It also seeks to demonstrate the enduring influence of Platonic thought on modern political theory, especially in discussions concerning justice, good governance, and the establishment of an ethical state. In addition, the study highlights the contemporary relevance of Plato’s ideas and their potential contribution to understanding and addressing the crises of violence, conflict, and instability that continue to challenge societies at both local and global levels.

This research begins with a critical, analytical, and philosophical study of Peter Abelard's concept of mental existence as a central concept in medieval scholastic thought and an epistemological starting point for a profound shift in addressing the problem of universals and the relationship between mind, reality, and language. The research proceeds from the fundamental premise that Abelard did not merely offer a middle ground between realism and nominalism, but rather established a comprehensive epistemological framework that makes the mind the true domain for the formation of meanings and universals, thus shifting the question of universals from the realm of ontology to that of epistemology.The research employs a critical textual analysis methodology, based on a study of Abelard's original texts and their philosophical analysis within the broader scholastic context, utilizing comparative and conceptual approaches.:

This study explores spiritual consciousness in medieval Christian philosophy through the exemplary figure of Hildegard of Bingen, high lighting her unique contribution to both spiritual and in tellectual traditions. The research examines how her mystical awareness emerged within a theological vision that perceives nature, the body, and art as spaces of divine manifestation. It focuses on the existential, epistemological, ethical, and artistic (musical) dimensions of her writings, demonstrating how Hildegard expressed these insights through a symbolic and Lyrical language. Ultimately, the study reveals how now her mystical experience shaped a holistic consciousness that unites inner vision with active engagement in the world.

A person may appear free on the surface, while his actions and thoughts move within limits he did not choose. At this point, what can be called the philosophical prison takes shape, where confinement is not related to place, but to the way one perceives the world. The philosophical prison occupies a central position in Suhrawardi’s philosophy. It appears clearly in his writings, both poetic and prose, through different levels of expression, ranging from direct statement to symbolic suggestion. This diversity reflects Suhrawardi’s deep awareness of imprisonment as a fundamental existential problem, an awareness that is clearly expressed in his Illuminationist philosophy

The main focus of symbolic anthropology is the study of the methods or means by which individuals perceive and interpret what is around them, such as the actions and expressions used by individuals in their society. and rituals) by people who added meanings to symbols in order for their social life to become clear. Therefore, the importance of interpretation is raised in symbolic anthropology, which may distinguish "Clifford Gertz" in symbolic anthropology by employing the interpretive approach. He also worked on researching and choosing the meaning of cultural behavior through his own interpretations. From a symbolic system that made him realize that the cultural behavior of individuals depends on symbols and signs that refer to social symbols and signs. Individuals participate together in patterns of behavior and give meanings to their experiences.

This study aims to investigate the transformations that have affected the concept of the self within two distinct contexts: the context of Islamic philosophy on the one hand, and the context of contemporary technology on the other. In the digital age, the human self has come to face profound existential and epistemological challenges as a result of the rapid expansion of artificial intelligence technologies and modern communication media, which have contributed to reshaping the relationship between the human being and the world, as well as between the human being and the self.
The study focuses on analyzing the structure of the concept of the self in the Islamic intellectual tradition, as articulated by philosophers and Sufi thinkers, highlighting how this perspective maintained a delicate balance between the spiritual, rational, and physical dimensions of the human being. In contrast, the study examines the impact of contemporary technology on the reconfiguration of self-awareness, showing how it has contributed to the deconstruction of the traditional structure of the self and has driven individuals toward a form of digital existence that may lead to alienation and the loss of human centrality.

This study presents interwoven perspectives on the relationship between Islam as a religion and the currents of political Islam, particularly Salafi-jihadist movements and their ideological transformations. The spiritual dimension is largely absent in political Islam, as it relies on the materiality of action in shaping the relationship between religion and politics—an approach that plunges events into a chaos of actions from which pure religion tends to distance itself.

In its earliest sources, Islam was not political but rather a pure creed. Early Muslims engaged with the details of life on the basis of faith. Some may assume that faith can be political; however, this is not the case. Faith consists of inner, subjective interactions within the self, coupled with the development of a moral conscience that admits no alternatives to constants. As for variables, they are characteristics of religion, since religion is composed of a set of obligations and rituals that regulate objective interactions, shaping the individual’s belonging to the mechanisms of natural and social existence as a framework governing the application of Sharia in life.

Abstract
Both Al-Farabi and Miskawayh agree that man is a social being by nature, and he cannot achieve his perfection except within an organized society. Al-Farabi believes that the ideal society is represented by the virtuous city, which is based on wise leadership and cooperation. Among the individuals to achieve happiness, Al-Farabi focused on the political and organizational dimension of society, considering the presence of a virtuous leader (a wise ruler) as a basic condition for the stability of society, while Ibn Miskawayh focused on the ethical aspect, considering that reforming the individual and refining the soul is the basis for reforming society. He emphasizes that ethics such as justice, moderation, and cooperation are necessary elements for the establishment of a cohesive society. Al-Farabi starts from a comprehensive rational philosophical conception, while Miskawayh tends towards the practical ethical character. The integration of the two philosophers’ ideas in presenting a balanced vision that combines the moral building of the individual and the political organization of society, and their ideas contributed to laying early foundations for social thought in Islamic philosophy, and are still important in understanding the relationship between the individual and society to this day..

Abstract
This research investigates the discourse of \"Peace and War\" within the philosophy of Ibn Khaldun, aiming to deconstruct the dialectic between these two concepts within the context of human civilization (Al-Umran Al-Bashari). The conceptual framework of this study is grounded in defining the essence of \"Dialogue\"—both linguistically and terminologically—while clarifying its nature, classifications, and normative determinants. Furthermore, the study seeks to establish the conceptual foundations of \"Peace and War\" and define their operational significance within the Khaldunian corpus.
The research is organized into four main pillars: The first pillar provides a linguistic and philosophical reading of the concept of dialogue. The second pillar explores the conceptual analysis of peace and war. The third pillar offers a comparative historical study of these concepts across the Mesopotamian civilization, Greek philosophy, and Islamic philosophy. Finally, the fourth pillar addresses the core of this study: \"The Dialogue of Peace and War in Ibn Khaldun’s Philosophy.\"
The study adopts an integrated methodological approach, employing descriptive, analytical, historical, comparative, and critical methods. It utilizes a robust collection of Arabic and Iraqi sources, which significantly enriched the intellectual depth of the research. The paper concludes with a summary of the primary findings, followed by a comprehensive list of references

Classical Orientalism began to decline with the deaths of its last great German scholars, Josef van Ess and Wilferd Madelung. Both Orientalists were interested in Shi‘ism in its various currents, although Madelung’s engagement with Shi‘ism was more extensive than that of his predecessor, van Ess. Madelung devoted particular attention to the figure of Ibn Abi Jumhur al-Ahsa’i, the Shi‘i thinker who combined Shi‘ism and Sufism through his vast intellectual legacy and his mystical interpretations of Twelver Shi‘i heritage. In this article, the reader will encounter Madelung’s final theory concerning the Islamic caliphate, which he presented shortly before his death in an article written for his friend van Ess on the occasion of the publication of a book on sects and heresiography in the Islamic tradition.
Keywords: Orientalism, Shi‘ism, Sufism, Ibn Abi Jumhur al-Ahsa’i, Madelung, Classical Orientalism.

Sufi language is a symbolic space that transcends the limits of conventional expression. It springs from an experiential understanding that is not sustained by abstract reason, nor does it adhere to the boundaries of formal logic. It is a cool, harmless language, a revelation rather than a description, taking shape in the presence of absence, and manifesting as language in the presence of presence. Hence, we shed light on prominent Sufi figures such as Ibn Arabi, Farid al-Din Attar, and Jalal al-Din Rumi. A thorough and well-founded study of them is not merely an analysis of literary texts, but rather an exploration of the paths of mysticism, where the word becomes a mirror of existence and the symbol a bridge between the manifest and the hidden. Ibn Arabi, in his Sufi language, reached the Sufi and philosophical heights when he established from it a cognitive system of the unity of existence, where forms are many, but the Truth is one; words vary, but meaning is manifested in every manifestation. While Attar formulated his vision through the symbolic tale that reveals the soul's journey in search of truth, transcending the sensory worlds towards the unity of purpose, we find that Rumi expressed his Sufi language in a poetic language that flows with divine love, where love becomes a universal principle that dissolves the duality between lover and beloved. Thus, for these Sufis, the language is not merely a tool of expression, but an ontological and epistemological structure in which the dialectical relationship between man and the Absolute is revealed. It is a language founded on paradox, built on symbolism, and read with the heart before the mind, to open an infinite interpretive horizon that makes the Sufi text a continuous experience of manifestation and understanding
Keywords: (symbol, the logic of the birds, annihilation, manifestation)

Abstract
The Sufi experience in Islam unfolds as a gradual journey, beginning with asceticism and self-discipline, and culminating in a deeper realization of divine unity and the elevation of the soul to an inner esoteric realm. Within this framework, al-Junayd al-Baghdadi and al-Hallaj stand as emblematic figures, reflecting two divergent approaches to the relationship between the human being and the Divine.
Al-Junayd represents a moderate paradigm of Sufism, emphasizing legal discipline and rational balance. His approach sought to integrate inner spirituality with outward knowledge, shaping a mystical path that remained within the bounds of the Shari‘a. In contrast, al-Hallaj embodied a radical mysticism grounded in annihilation within the Divine and the symbolic expression of union, transcending traditional boundaries and sparking wide debate.
The comparison between them reveals a fundamental dialectic in Sufi thought: moderation versus radical passion, discipline versus immersion, and reason versus ecstasy. This tension became a defining element in the evolution of Islamic mysticism, combining rational depth with emotional intensity.

This research explores the epistemological dialectic between Scholastic Theology (Kalam) and Arabic Rhetoric, revealing how elocutionary issues evolved from mere artistic tools into an "argumentative arsenal" serving religious doctrine. The study traces the influence of the Mu'tazilites in employing metaphor (Majaz) as a rational necessity for de-anthropomorphism (Tanzih), contrasting it with the Ash'arite vision, which formulated the "Theory of Systems" (Nazm) based on the concept of Internal Speech (Al-Kalam al-Nafsi).
The research aims to demonstrate that Arabic rhetoric, during its golden eras, was pre-eminently a "Rhetoric of the Theologians" (Balaat al-Mutakallimin), transitioning from "literary taste" to "logical rigor" through the mechanisms of analysis and synthesis. The final assessment concludes that while this synthesis served rhetoric by establishing its methodological foundations, it later constrained it with rigid normativity. The study relies on a comparative balance between original primary sources and modern translated discourses to provide a comprehensive perspective on how theological thought shaped the identity of Arabic literary criticism and its ontological dimensions

The question of the Imamate has long been one of the most debated issues in the history of Islamic thought due to its close connection with theological and political considerations. This study examines the position of the Muʿtazilite theologian Abū Bakr al-Aṣamm, whose view represents a distinctive departure from the dominant perspectives of Islamic sects regarding the necessity of the Imamate and the appointment of an Imam. Al-Aṣamm proposes a rational and critical approach that links the legitimacy of political authority to the moral and social condition of the community, emphasizing justice and social cohesion as the fundamental basis for establishing authority.
The research seeks to analyze the nature of al-Aṣamm’s divergence from the commonly accepted theological position on the obligation of the Imamate. It also clarifies the concept of the Imamate within Islamic intellectual discourse and compares al-Aṣamm’s perspective with those of major Islamic traditions, including Sunnī, Imāmī, Khārijite, and Muʿtazilite views. In doing so, the study highlights the philosophical and social dimensions underlying his position and situates it within the broader context of early Islamic theological debates.
Methodologically, the study adopts an analytical and critical approach through examining textual reports attributed to al-Aṣamm in classical works on Islamic sects and doctrines, particularly Maqālāt al-Islāmiyyīn by al-Ashʿarī and al-Milal wa al-Niḥal by al-Shahrastānī. It further analyzes his arguments and compares them with the prevailing theological frameworks of his time, while also offering a contemporary interpretive perspective that relates his ideas to certain concepts in modern political thought, especially those concerning limited authority and forms of social self-regulation.
The study concludes that al-Aṣamm does not consider the Imamate an absolute obligation, either rationally or religiously. Rather, he views it as conditional upon the realization of justice and social order within the community. According to his view, if individuals are capable of establishing justice independently, the necessity of an Imam diminishes. His position also reflects an ethical orientation that emphasizes collective responsibility and social awareness as alternatives to coercive centralized authority, understanding the Imamate as a means for achieving justice rather than an end in itself. Overall, the study shows that al-Aṣamm’s perspective represents an important example of intellectual diversity within early Islamic thought and reveals the presence of critical and flexible approaches to political authority in classical Islamic theology.
:

This study explores freedom of belief in Islamic thought and its impact on social peace through a comparative analytical approach with Western perspectives. The research addresses the problem of the absence of a balanced vision of freedom in many contemporary discourses, where it is either viewed as absolute without limits or restricted by authoritarian constraints. Using the comparative analytical method, the study examines the linguistic and conceptual foundations of freedom, its types, and its development in both Islamic and Western thought. It then analyzes the consequences of deficiency in freedom through religious persecution, and excess through unrestrained dissolution, highlighting the Islamic model of balanced freedom. The findings reveal that balanced freedom—rooted in recognition of diversity and guided by ethical and religious values—is the true guarantee for achieving stability and peaceful coexistence, unlike excess or deficiency which lead to violence or disorder
Keywords: Freedom; Belief; Islamic Thought; Western Thought; Social Peace.

The question of eternal punishment in Hell and the permanence of otherworldly torment is among the major theological and doctrinal issues that have long occupied Muslim thinkers. The views of theologians, philosophers, and mystics have diverged regarding how this perpetuity should be understood. Is punishment absolutely everlasting, as maintained by the theologians? Or does it remain but ultimately transform into delight for the tormented, as proposed by some mystics such as Ibn ʿArabī?
Mullā Ṣadrā addresses this issue from a philosophical–mystical perspective. However, some scholars have claimed that his writings exhibit an apparent inconsistency: in certain passages he agrees with the theologians on the eternality of punishment, while in others he explicitly endorses Ibn ʿArabī’s notion that torment becomes sweetness, thereby embracing a form of cessation through the habituation of Hell’s inhabitants.

Abstract
This study examines the figure of Ibn Abi Jumhur al-Ahsa’i as a scholarly model who combined theology, philosophy, and mysticism, with a focus on his method based on reconciling reason and revelation. The research addresses his intellectual biography, his works, and the major theological issues he explored, such as monotheism, prophethood, and imamate, highlighting his reliance on rational demonstration.
It also demonstrates his use of mystical and illuminationist concepts in analyzing theological questions, revealing a distinctive epistemological integration between theology, Sufism, and gnosis. The study concludes that his intellectual project represents an advanced attempt to expand theology from mere dialectical debate into a comprehensive epistemological and spiritual framework grounded in both reason and intuitive insight

In this study, entitled “The Ashʿarite and Māturīdite Conception of the Source of Moral Values in Light of Theological Discourses”, we analyzed the theoretical justifications underlying the views of the Ashʿarite and Māturīdite schools regarding ethics, as two of the most prominent classical theological traditions within Sunni Islam. We also referred to the Muʿtazilite school in order to compare their theological perspectives on ethical issues, given that the Muʿtazilites represent an earlier intellectual and methodological development compared to other theological schools. Although classical works of kalām do not contain independent chapters devoted exclusively to ethics, ethical discussions occupy a significant place within theological literature. This is due to the fact that concepts such as divine will, human actions, justice, righteousness, good and evil—closely tied to the question of divine decree and predestination—contributed to shaping ethical thought within kalām.
The Muʿtazilites adopted a rationalist approach to interpreting ethics, maintaining that reason is the foundation for determining moral values. Their principles of divine unity (tawḥīd) and justice (ʿadl), which constitute part of their five foundational doctrines, formed the basis of their ethical system, linking the source of morality directly to human reason. By contrast, the Ashʿarites argued that moral values can only be known through divine revelation, since both good and evil are created by God and cannot impose any limitation upon divine will. They contended that any ethical framework granting human reason a central role and positioning humans as independent moral agents would undermine God’s absolute sovereignty. The Māturīdites, however, adopted a more balanced stance, integrating reason, revelation, and human nature in their interpretation of ethics, thereby offering a more comprehensive approach compared to both the Ashʿarites and the Muʿtazilites

This research investigates the philosophical paradigm of Arne Næss regarding ontology and self-realization. It proceeds from the fundamental hypothesis that the philosophical vision termed by Næss as \\"Ecosophy\\" constitutes the deep ontological structure of his ecological doctrine. The study explicates that Ecosophy transcends the status of a mere pragmatic environmental program; rather, it manifests as a comprehensive cosmological vision aimed at rearticulating the essence of human existence in its ontological entanglement with Nature. In doing so, it surpasses the superficial approaches of dominant environmental ideologies, striving instead to catalyze a conscious shift in the individual’s existential posture toward the world, thereby formulating a novel ontological perspective.
The research demonstrates that this vision is grounded upon two cardinal philosophical pillars that transcend the traditional subject-object dualism:
I. The Unity of Being (Biocentrism/Monism):
We elucidate Næss’s adoption of a monistic vision of the cosmos—deeply informed by Spinozian thought—wherein no \\"I\\" exists in isolation from the ontological web. Within this framework, Nature is not perceived as an aggregate of inert resources or material objects distinct from humanity; rather, it is apprehended as a Gestalt—an integrated structure of internal relations. Consequently, any rupture between the human and the natural world represents an essential fragmentation of the self from its authentic constituents of identity, thereby rendering alienation from Nature an existential alienation in the strictest sense.
II. Self-Realization:
This concept serves as the focal pivot of Næss’s philosophy. He redefines the \\"self\\" through the lens of the \\"Comprehensive/Universal Self,\\" drawing upon the Vedantic (Hindu) concept of Atman. Self-realization, here, does not denote the hegemony of the individual ego at the expense of other entities; conversely, it signifies an \\"ontological opening\\" that incorporates the selves of others, diverse species, and ecosystems into the synthesis of the individual’s own essence. From this vantage point, altruism emerges not as a moral imposition, but as a natural act stemming from the individual’s recognition that any violation of the components of life is, intrinsically, a violation of one’s own \\"Greater Self.\\"
The research concludes that Næss’s ontology and his philosophical vision of self-realization—as articulated in Ecosophy—constitute an ecological wisdom that transcends theoretical cognition to reach the level of practical insight (phronesis). It is a philosophy that seeks equilibrium by maximizing the diversity and complexity of life, deeply grounding the principle of \\"Cosmic Coexistence.\\" In this manner, Næss situates philosophy within a new ethical horizon, linking the maturation of individual identity to one’s obligation toward the biosphere, thereby establishing the realization of the organic interdependence among all beings as an essential condition for authentic human existence.

Roger Garaudy is one of the most prominent philosophers whose philosophy has witnessed many intellectual shifts, leading him to move from theoretical thought to scientific thought, as philosophy, from his point of view, should not be content with theoretical contemplation, but should try to overcome the problems of the human world and give man an active role in the course of history
Man is the true axis of all approaches and philosophies. Therefore, according to Garaudy, all approaches that negate the role of the self must be rejected. He emphasized that true philosophy is that which is capable of bringing about tangible change within society and helping to solve its problems, and does not remain mere theorizing. This theorizing led him to criticize Western centrism and liberalism, considering them obstacles to any genuine civilizational dialogue. Furthermore, he presented a vision of Marxism, finding that it was insufficient to explain the crisis of contemporary man and that it needed a spiritual and ethical dimension. Therefore, Garaudy sought to propose the concept of a dialogue of civilizations based on well-known historical and humanistic foundations, as an alternative to the concept of a clash of civilizations. He considered that civilizations are not conflicting entities, but rather can interact and build bridges of understanding.

This study examines symbolic violence as one of the most subtle and pervasive forms of violence in everyday life. Unlike physical or direct coercion, symbolic violence operates through symbols, meanings, language, cultural norms, and social institutions. The research adopts an anthropological analytical approach, drawing primarily on the theoretical framework developed by Pierre Bourdieu, alongside key contributions from Michel Foucault, Anthony Giddens, and Clifford Geertz, in order to analyze the mechanisms through which symbolic violence is produced and reproduced in social life. The study aims to reveal the various manifestations of symbolic violence embedded in everyday social practices and to analyze its role in sustaining relations of domination and social inequality. Particular attention is given to the ways in which symbolic violence is reproduced through institutions such as the family, education, media, and religious structures. In addition, the research provides illustrative examples from contemporary Iraqi society, demonstrating how symbolic violence functions as an invisible mechanism for the reproduction of social and cultural structures.

This study examines environmental ontology and its role in shaping sustainable development visions by exploring the philosophical foundations governing the relationship between humans and the environment The research is based on the assumption that the contemporary environmental crisis cannot be effectively addressed through technical or economic solutions alone; rather, it requires a reconsideration of the intellectual frameworks that shape human interaction with nature Environmental ontology provides a conceptual framework that emphasizes the unity and interconnectedness of all elements within the ecological system Such a perspective contributes to developing a developmental vision based on balance between economic growth and environmental

This study examines the problem of causality in the philosophy of David Hume, one of the most influential philosophical issues in the history of knowledge. Hume rejected the notion of a fixed and necessary connection between causes and effects, arguing that what human beings perceive is not necessity itself, but rather the repeated conjunction of phenomena, which generates a psychological habit in the mind that leads it to expect the effect whenever the cause is present. The study seeks to reinterpret the concept of causality through an analytical perspective that links habit and meaning, whereby habit is not merely a blind psychological response but a cognitive mechanism that contributes to the production of meaning and the understanding of the world.

The research raises a central question concerning how mental habit, in Hume’s philosophy, becomes the foundation that grants causality its epistemic meaning despite the absence of either rational or empirical necessity. From this main question emerge several subsidiary inquiries related to the nature of causality, the role of repetition and experience in the formation of causal belief, and whether such a conception ultimately undermines knowledge or, instead, reconstructs it on new analytical foundations. The study assumes that Hume did not completely abolish causality; rather, he reinterpreted it as a psychological and epistemological phenomenon grounded in experience and regularity. Habit, therefore, constitutes an essential element in the formation of significance and meaning. Accordingly, the study aims to analyze the concept of causality in Hume’s philosophy, highlight the role of habit in the construction of knowledge, deconstruct traditional conceptions of causal necessity, and reveal the analytical dimensions of the Humean project and its connection to contemporary analytic philosophy.

This research aims to uncover the political philosophy of Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), the British philosopher who not only contemplated existence but also engaged deeply with political and social life through bold and critical thought. The research seeks to identify the most important pillars upon which his political vision was based, from the concepts of the state, freedom, and authority, to economic reform, his critique of war, extreme nationalism, and capitalism, culminating in his call for lasting peace. It also examines his stance on democracy and education as cornerstones for building an ideal human society. The research employs a descriptive-analytical approach to review Russell's political ideas, analyze their philosophical foundations, reveal their internal coherence, and draw conclusions by tracing his views in his various works and formulating them into a comprehensive vision. The research concludes that Russell's political philosophy represents an exceptional model of liberal humanistic thought, combining logical rigor with a moral commitment to humanity, and that many of his ideas retain their validity and relevance in contemporary political debates to this day