Athar al-rafedain

Both archaeological and written evidence are used in this study to introduce the ancient history of the Lower Khabur region in Syria. The study starts with the name of the Khabur river in the cuneiform texts and the way of writing the name of it. This modern Arabic name is the same name of the river in those texts. Besides, the history of ancient settlement in the valley of this river, since the oldest periods is studied her.
The site of the main city in the region, known as Dur-katlimu, was identified in Tell Shaikh Hamad which had been excavated. The study shows how this discovery was done and explain the results of the excavations.
Since the region is well documented through texts of the Assyrian kings Adad-nerari II and Tukulti-Ninurta II, both had visited it, the study used those texts to prove the identity of the major archaeological sites there: Tell al-Ṣur, Tell Fodin, Tell Ḥanthal, Tell Mushiḥ and Baṣaira. The study also includes “Falage al-Khabur” as was mentioned in the Assyrian texts.

Since the oldest historical known periods, money of all kinds and naming has played an important and pivotal role in the lives of nations and peoples, represented in meeting needs and overcoming the fluctuations and changes of life. This matter was not in isolation from what it was in the Assyrian kingdom as much as money was a means for it to meet the daily requirements of its subjects and secure the elements of its civilization, money was also the effective performance that was optimally employed by its eminent kings not only in meeting their requirements and the needs of their growing palaces, but in supporting their rule and securing their thrones embodied in laying the foundations of security inside and outside the Kingdom, meaning the investment and spending of money in aspects of life and its political, economic and military facilities with the aim of achieving their desired goals and objectives in imposing a state of security and stability in the region based on their strength and bringing satisfaction to subjects.

In the year 1195 BC, the Kassites entered the country of Babylon and established their powerful kingdom that lasted until approximately the year 1157 BC. Babylon was associated with foreign relations with the kingdoms of the ancient world, including Egypt, to strengthen its political and diplomatic relations with the pharaohs of Egypt, the masters of the Near East, and the exchange of gifts was one of the most prominent means used for this The Kassite kings sent gifts of peace, including minerals, wood, stones, and others, on certain occasions, such as political marriages or making alliances. The pharaohs of Egypt received gifts from Babylon, as indicated by the Amarna letters.

The research for deals with the issue of the emergence of temples with Triple-Division style in Mesopotamia as one of the forms of architecture associated primarily with religious beliefs, despite the lack of information about the origins of its appearance. The results of the archaeological excavation proved that the known division dates back to the seventh and sixth millennium BC., based on the architectural plans discovered for residential houses, some of which contain chapels of worship (chapels) in northern and central Mesopotamia, it also includes the study of same models from the levant, Anatolia and Elam. as they allocated one of the wings (right or left) to perform worship in a triangular formation, which includes several rooms perpendicular to each other by means of intervening entrances, and this is what the research will investigate, while standing on the stages that this style went through and its continuity in the history of architecture in Mesopotamia, and mentioned the most important types of this style.

The Linguistic studies of the Akkadian Language in general, and the grammatical studies in particular, received great attention from researchers in the field of Semitic studies and in order to complete what these researchers began, this research came to study the nominal sentence in the Akkadian language, which it is known as the sentence without verbs. The nominal sentence in Akkadian language begins with its pillars represented by the predicate and the predicate to it and the variety of formulas in which each of them appears; and then the arrangement of words in the nominal sentence and the changes that occur to them in terms of introduction and delay, and personal nouns compounded from a nominal sentence as well as the negation of the nominal sentence and the tools used in that, as well the matching that occurs between the elements of the nominal sentence in terms of number and gender, and the deletion of the predicate that occurs in some sentences.

The Ottoman literature is an important source in studying the various aspects of modern Arab history (social, economic and political). These sources ranged from documents and records of Sharia courts to land titles and Salnamat books. Among the historical and geographical literature, the importance of these sources lies in the fact that most of them were close to the historical event and were eyewitnesses to the developments that took place in the Arab states over the course of four centuries. In fact, the researcher may extract important information from one historical source on which he can base himself in forming the picture of the historical event and its dimensions within the period that that source addresses. The Levant aroused the interest of one of the most important Ottoman historians and geographers, Kateb Çelebi (1608 - 1656), who is considered the most important Ottoman author during the seventeenth century. Our study on this topic came from the translation of texts related to agriculture in the Levant from the ancient Ottoman language into the Arabic language, analyzing them through his book (Jahan Nama), and then studying these texts to find out agricultural patterns, land divisions, taxes imposed on them, and the associated agricultural crops and their types during the seventh century.

The research paper focuses on tracing the historical and cultural roots of the shekel and its nomenclature in the civilizations of the ancient near east before it was adopted by the Zionist Entity in the year 1980 to become its main currency. And that is by talking about the functions of the shekel in ancient civilizations, starting with Mesopotamia and the neighboring and affiliated provinces in the Levant in the third millennium until the sixth century BC, and its impact on the changes of the economic system there. From dealing with it as an intermediate commodity to the emergence of silver coins from the shekel, and its spread in large places in the countries of the Near East in the Lebanese Phoenician cities: such as: Tire, Sidon and Byblos, then the spread of striking the shekel in the countries that were controlled by the Phoenicians in Carthage in North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula and Italy.
The research dealt with the relationship of the shekel with the Bible, with its two parts, the Old Testament and the New Testament. The article also discussed what was done later by the Jewish revolution against the Romans in striking the shekel coin, imitation of the striking cities of Tire, Sidon and other cities in the neighboring region.
Some examples of the shekel coin have been cited in all stages of its appearance in ancient civilizations, and the influences between them have been monitored.

Restoration occupies a large and important space in the field of Archaeology concerns, and it developed greatly during the latter half of the twentieth century, becoming a stand-alone science with distinguished schools, in which a lot of research and academic and applied studies are conducted.
Organic pieces are often subjected to physical, chemical and biological changes depending on the self-resistance properties of the material that composes the artifact, and it is not possible to sequence the importance of the change factors, and thus it can be said that the damage of plant organic materials depends mainly on the internal interactions of cellulose and other organic compounds and these interactions resulted from the surrounding environment, such as poor storage and resulting in fragility and color change, and the damage is represented in the color change in the molecular structure of the material, and accordingly the expectation of the rate of oxidation and hydrolysis, especially for the surface, as well as the effect may be found under the surface of the soil that leads to damage to the wood that lived for very long periods of time, exposed to the soil, which works to destroy the fungi and bacteria in the wood.

Egyptian civilization played a major role in the development of human knowledge, especially medical one. The medical community was characterized by academic discipline and professional organization. Physicians were not permitted to practice this profession except after studying in medical academies, which were called the “House of Life,” in addition to establishing a hierarchy of the profession according to each physician’s experience and skills. The Egyptian based his sciences in general and medical sciences in particular on a perception of God, the universe, man and the relationship among them. This perception was informed by the philosophy of Egyptian religion, which coined all the activities of the ancient Egyptian, from the ordinary farmer to the Pharaoh himself. Therefore, it was very important to know the religious influence on the development of Egyptian knowledge in the field of medicine and medical drugs.
This vision originated from the cosmic unity between man, nature, and metaphysics. The ancient Egyptian concept of health is that it is the balance between a person, soul and body, with the universe and the gods. This balance was governed by laws of “Maat”, which are the physical, moral and social laws that governed the universe and gods. On the other hand, they saw illness as an imbalance in these relations. As a result, their medical conceptions combined physical and metaphysical explanations. The imbalance may be caused by demons, spirits of the dead, or the anger of the gods. Therefore, their treatments combined the use of drugs with a direct medicinal effect and the recitation of spells that aimed to overcoming evil spirits and pleasing gods.

Researchers and specialists use many terms in Arabic to describe some places, time, periods, peoples, systems, interactions and ancient human actions. As well as terms that denote applied field archaeological work in the archaeological field or site; To indicate any activity, study, or subject within the academic studies of the disciplines of archeology, history and civilization. This idiomatic use may sometimes fail in the accuracy of its connotations within the specialized cognitive context; many cases have been diagnosed, in many specialized studies and research, in terms of the incorrect use of some archaeological terms in the Arabic language and their use in other than its scientific, archaeological and even logical connotations within the conceptual system of sectoral knowledge of archaeology, history and civilization. The study aims at the correct use of archaeological terms, in archaeological, historical and civilizational studies and research, specifically in the Arabic language, and setting something similar to the concept of guide in how to use them to serve their correct connotations known within the fields of these disciplines.

The Mosul architecture employed the elements of architecture in accordance with the nature of the building, the size of its spaces and their bodies, as well as its environmental and social suitability and the nature of its building materials. Among these elements are the vaults that he used in various types of buildings, from residential ones such as the Totenji House and the Ziada House, religious ones such as the Al-Aghawat Mosque and the Al-Zaywani Mosque, and service ones such as caravanserais, markets, and qaysariyat. These vaults were employed in the roofing of building spaces with rectangular projections instead of flat ceilings, because flat ceilings are completely subject to gravity. As a result, the building in which it is erected fell more than the vaulted ceilings, which are the opposite of the flat ceilings, which prolongs the life of the buildings erected in it as in the halls and rooms, due to its structural durability and climatic treatments, as well as adding prestige and beauty to the building. One of the ways used it in roofing spaces with longitudinal extensions, such as archways, vestibules, Iwans, and basements, as it is supported by a series of successive arches that may range from three to five arches, depending on the length of the spaces, either its vertical sections are in the form of a semicircular arch or in the form of a pointed arch.

The ancient Akkadian Era provides us with a rich archive about the economic and commercial activities in this era. Akkadians have immortalized these activities by archives that clarified the perfect central management and the economic prosperity that prevailed in the country, the thing that paved the way for a vast extending prospect for study.
Some of these important texts are the archives of accounting records in which the Sumerian term (nig2 Kas7) was found, with its Akkadian counterpart (nikkassu) which literally means 'account', and which was translated by the researchers into 'the balanced account ' or ‘the budget accounts’.
This term was of great importance as far as the interpretation of the economic system of Mesopotamia is concerned especially at the end of the third Millennium BC. This is exactly the same historical period to which this type of texts (balance calculations texts) goes back to.

The remnants of the irrigation projects established by the Assyrian kings, especially King Sennacherib (705-681 BC.), have been associated with many legends and tales that tried to explain their existence or their purpose. The issue of irrigation and water delivery represented the main thing around which it was woven around.
These legends and news were spread in the land of Assyria, especially the area surrounding the city of Nineveh itself represented by the towns located in its surroundings in Tel Kaif, Bakhdida (Qaraqosh), Alqosh, Karmles, Bartella and other cities, as many of these news that they still circulate in the popular memory of its people is still there to this day. Perhaps, this is evidence of the greatness of the works conducted by the Assyrians and their kings.

During excavation, archaeologists sometimes notice the presence of plant remains in the archaeological sediment. These more visible macrobotanical remains include wood, seeds, fruits and floral parts. Depending on the region and conditions, they can be preserved by various modes, including dessication, waterlogging and charring; the latter being the most common especially in modern Iraq.
Thanks to the development of research on this organic material, our knowledge on the way of life of ancient societies was greatly improved. They would be able to provide important knowledge about earlier vegetation, the plant exploitation including cultivation and domestication process as well as the diet. In addition, plant remains may help us to reconstruct activities and help us to interpret the function of spaces and/or structures. However, before being able to provide such information, the archaeobotanical study requires to apply strategies and methods from sampling to interpretation. Our paper presents these different steps.