AL-ANBAR University Journal of Law and Political Sciences

In light of the rapid global transformations and the growing interconnection between legal systems, this study sheds light on the universality of civil law rules as an approach to promoting justice and facilitating cross-border transactions. The aim is to analyze the prospects for unifying civil law rules at the international level by examining the main challenges that hinder this endeavor—chief among them being legislative disparities between legal systems, the principle of national sovereignty, and cultural and value-based differences.
The paper also discusses key international initiatives in this field, such as the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) and the UNIDROIT Principles, highlighting the role of such instruments in fostering legal convergence among states. Furthermore, the analysis extends to exploring the extent to which these initiatives can be integrated within the Iraqi legal context, with a focus on the structural, cultural, and political challenges that may impede such integration, as well as the opportunities available—such as the move toward legislative reform and openness to international cooperation.
The study concludes with a set of recommendations calling for the adaptation of Iraqi civil law rules to international standards through legislative modernization, capacity building for legal professionals, and strengthening of supportive institutional frameworks. Emphasis is placed on the importance of political will in establishing a unified legal environment that keeps pace with global developments while preserving national legal identity.

Legislative performance is one of the most important functions of the Council of Representatives, as any reform in society, whether political, economic, or social, is essentially a legislative reform. The primary purpose of the Council's existence is to enact laws that govern the government and members of society. Therefore, any improvement in this legislative function will impact the Council's performance of its other functions, leading to the transformation of Parliament from a rigid bureaucratic institution to an effective legislative body through improved drafting and objectivity of the laws it passes.

Despite the role and importance demonstrated by this institution, it faces several challenges and issues that may negatively affect its legislative performance. Here emerges the actual need for the Federal Supreme Court to exercise its role in evaluating the Council's performance. The Federal Supreme Court in Iraq has contributed, through numerous decisions, to correcting the deviations of the legislative authority through its oversight of the Council, transforming the legislation it issues into a tangible reality, and ensuring that laws do not violate constitutional provisions. The role of the Federal Supreme Court has come to rectify the legislative authority's deviations, monitor newly enacted laws, compare them with the state's constitution, and address them in case they violate constitutional provisions.

This research, entitled (The Penal Policy in Regulating Control over Radioactive, Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Activities (An Analytical Study), addresses a vital and important topic of criminal jurisprudence related to the penal policy of the Iraqi legislator in the National Authority for Nuclear, Radioactive, Chemical and Biological Control Law No. 1 of 2024, because the legislator's reliance on a successful penal policy in this law will inevitably lead to achieving its goals represented in ensuring control over the peaceful uses of atomic energy and avoiding the risks of ionizing radiation on workers, the environment and society in general, which in turn contributes to protecting public health and the environment, as we divided the study into two sections, the first of which came under the title of criminalization policy, which is divided into two requirements, in the first of which we discussed the legislator's policy in criminalizing what is practiced without a license, while the other requirement was devoted to discussing the legislator's policy in criminalizing actions in view of the type of behavior, positive or negative, while the second section was devoted to addressing the punishment policy in the aforementioned law, which was also divided into Two requirements, the first of which discusses the penalties that deprive freedom, while the second requirement is devoted to discussing the financial penalties included in the law, to end our research after that with a conclusion that includes the most important conclusions and recommendations that we have reached, which we hope the legislator will listen to.

One of the factors that help the employee to stabilize his legal and psychological status towards his work in state facilities is that he obtains his most important material and moral rights that work to achieve this goal. The law grants him the right to promotion according to what the law stipulates. However, the legislator did not make it an absolute right, but rather defined it in cases in which the administration may refuse to grant it, postpone it to a certain time, or deprive him of it from the beginning. This made this matter a rich and rich subject of interpretations that may push the administration to work on it. Therefore, we worked on researching this topic from the perspective of the administrative judiciary and the role of its rulings in contributing to the interpretation of many legal rules that the administration may find somewhat ambiguous, or make a mistake in interpreting them, or abuse its right..

The right of retention is considered one of the most important rights granted to a husband over his wife under the marriage contract. This right is fulfilled when the wife surrenders herself to her husband either physically or symbolically, allowing him to enjoy her and gain all the legal effects of this retention. Therefore, if the wife fails to fulfill this obligation without a legitimate excuse—namely, the obligation of retention for her husband’s benefit—it results in harm to the husband and causes tension in the marital relationship. The right of retention serves as a tool to maintain balance in the marital relationship, contributing to the preservation of emotional and physical bonds. It also directly affects the wife’s right to alimony, as alimony is due to her in exchange for her fulfillment of the retention obligation for the husband’s benefit.
However, if the wife forfeits the right of retention due to reasons attributable to the husband, her right to alimony is not forfeited, as such forfeiture is considered legitimate. For example, if the wife loses her right of retention because the husband failed to pay her due prompt dowry (mahr) before or after consummation, or if he failed to pay the due deferred dowry before or after consummation, this constitutes a legitimate reason. Similarly, if the wife forfeits her right of retention because the husband failed to provide a proper legal residence, such as a dwelling incompatible with their financial status, lacking essential facilities or living necessities, or located among inappropriate neighbors, this too is justified. The wife may also forfeit her right of retention due to the husband’s failure to meet travel conditions—such as not paying the prompt dowry, being untrustworthy, or traveling to an unsafe destination.
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The Gulf Cooperation Council Countries have today become among the leading countries globally in seeking to benefit from renewable energy sources. This has driven them to develop numerous plans and strategies aimed at achieving a transition toward renewable energy alternatives, due to the significant harm caused by fossil fuels, in addition to their finite nature and the high global costs associated with their extraction, transportation, and conversion.
These states seek to achieve energy security, maintain economic growth, and address environmental problems resulting from the increasing consumption of fossil energy sources by pursuing a policy of energy diversification and avoiding exclusive reliance on fossil fuels. The Gulf Cooperation Council Countries perceive renewable energy markets as offering significant investment opportunities. However, they vary in their levels of commitment and progress; while some have made tangible advancements in renewable energy projects, others are still working to overcome obstacles hindering their ability to invest in this sector.

Every tax system consists of essential, interconnected and complementary components. These components include the tax administration, which is the entity responsible for implementing tax legislation, and the taxpayer. Furthermore, this relationship requires a legal basis, represented by tax legislation, which regulates the relationship in terms of the rights and obligations of both parties. Our study here focuses on the obligations of the tax administration contained in the Income Tax Law. This law has determined the obligations of the tax administration. The tax administration has powers and authorities that prevail over the other party, represented by the taxpayer. This results from considering the tax as one of the basic resources in the state, in addition to considering it linked to the idea of the state’s sovereignty over its territory. Despite this, the law has obligated it to many obligations. Starting from its basic obligations related to linking the tax debt through the limitation and assessment of the tax, and its obligations not to abuse the powers and authorities assigned to it in order to achieve the public interest, this is what will be explained in this study.

Control over the authority of the criminal judge in assessing the penalty is one of the basic and main topics within the framework of procedural legislation, which raises many practical problems within the framework of judicial application, whether related to control over the content of evidence and its interpretation or the contradiction between this evidence, and despite the importance of this topic, it has not received the attention it deserves commensurate with that importance, especially within the framework of the Iraqi Traffic Law in force, and based on those problems and what the study reflects of importance, the researcher tried to study this topic and come out with a set of results and recommendations that were addressed in the conclusion of this study.

The study addressed the comparison between multiple sales contracts for the same item. The comparison here means determining which o the contracts should be given legal effect against third parties, and which of the buyers is proven to have the real right to the subject of the contract. The criteria for comparison differ according to the type of property being sold. In the sale of real estate, the legal system relies on official registration as the basic criterion for adjudicating between competitors. The buyer who takes the initiative to register his contract with the Real Estate Registration Department is the one who is given preference against third parties, in accordance with what has been established by Iraqi law and some comparative laws, with the condition of good faith in some cases, so that the registered buyer is protected if he is not aware of a previous sale of the same property. As for the sale of specific movables, the comparison is based on possession, so that the one who received the sale in good faith is preferred, regardless of the priority of the contract in terms of date, based on the rule of "possession in movables is the title deed." The problem becomes more complex if fraud or bad faith is involved in one of the transactions, as proof of fraud would deprive the subsequent purchaser of the protection of registration or possession, and their right could be invalidated even if it was based on correct formal procedures..

Political Stability is achieved by Legal and Constitutional Framework of basic principles and various political and social conflicts, to achieve constancy, continuity and integration within constitution institution. To by the system is in continuous movement and interacts regularly. Therefore most modern constitution stipulate internal mechanisms and means, to achieve stability and maintaining the shape of the state and its national constants. The most important of the these means and mechanism is the characteristic of stagnation, and constitutional restrictions by making it difficult, complicating and prohibiting some constitutional texts or topics from being amended their establish. And because religion is on the basic components of building national identity, Constitutions established restriction and guarantees to protect religion. It was considered one of the constants that cannot by changed or subject to any amendment. And after the issuance of the constitution of the Iraq in 2005, and consolidation the federal form, had a positive impact on the especially related, to form of the state, and respect for its identity in Iraqi society, which has a diverse composition.

This study explores the concept of instant customary rules in contemporary international law, a modern legal phenomenon that reflects the adaptability of customary international law to the rapidly evolving dynamics of international relations. Unlike traditional customary norms, which require sustained and repetitive state practice over an extended period, the instantaneous norm can arise swiftly, sometimes even with opinio juris (the belief in a legal obligation) preceding actual practice. The research aims to clarify the conceptual framework of instant customary law, highlight its distinct characteristics, and analyze the legal foundations for its formation. It also addresses the challenges related to its acceptance, evidentiary requirements, and practical application. Moreover, the study examines the perspectives of international legal scholars, judicial bodies, and international organizations on the validity of such rules, supported by practical examples in emerging fields such as environmental protection, outer space exploration, and the establishment of exclusive economic zones. The study concludes that instant customary rules embody the flexibility of international law and its ability to respond promptly to global developments while maintaining legal binding force, thereby strengthening the effectiveness of the international legal system.

Sale and purchase contracts and other legal contracts are important in daily life, as they represent the basis of the contractual relationship between individuals and institutions. In order to determine the nature of these contracts and to define the rights and duties arising from them, the justifications play an important role, as the justifications for determining the nature of the contracts include several aspects, Among them are the specialized justifications that are based on the expert’s specialization in this field and his ability to analyze the situation and evaluate the actual conditions of the contract, in addition to the scientific justifications that depend on scientific knowledge and legal theories. Similarities, while the justifications for the types of commercial and civil contracts focus on the differences in the nature of these contracts, which can affect the determination of the rights and duties arising therefrom. Thus, it can be said that determining the nature of contracts depends on a number of justifications that include many legal, specialized and scientific aspects, and specialists in this field must rely on these justifications in analyzing contracts and determining the rights and duties arising from them.

The research deals with the role of international custom as one of the main sources of international law in holding the permanent members of the UN Security Council accountable. These countries have remained for more than seven decades fortified by the UN Security Council and the UN Charter, which provided them with a strong fortress against being held accountable for violations of the rules of international law. Moreover, the international legal system, despite its development, has not been able to enforce the rules of international law against these countries. However, according to the discussion in this research, the researcher concluded that international custom can be used as a mechanism to hold these countries accountable in the event of violations of the rules of international law. In order to reach this conclusion, the researcher relied on more than one research method, and the research was divided into an introduction, two chapters, and a conclusion in which the researcher reviewed the conclusions he reached. The first chapter dealt with holding the permanent members of the Security Council accountable as a conceptual framework, through the practice of the scope of accountability, and the connection between accountability and international standards and their differences from international responsibility. In the second section, the researcher discussed international custom as a means of holding the permanent member accountable, by clarifying the concept of international custom, the role of international customary rules in holding the permanent members accountable, and the use of international custom in holding the permanent members of the Security Council accountable.

The US Congress is one of the important institutions in the United States, because the policy-making mechanism depends on: the constitution in the first place, and the powers it has granted, and the legislation approved by Congress in its two branches: the House of Representatives and the Senate, and then the existing norms.
The research problem, which has been identified, is related to the roles played by Congress in making public policy in the United States. The importance of research on this topic is determined by the fact that the United States is an important country, and the formulation of public policies in it is important, with its internal and external dimensions, to determine the centers of power within the United States.
The tools of influence for Congress are determined in: legislation, oversight, holding office, approving the budget, and it has the authority to direct the impeachment of the President of the Republic.

The emergence of cyberspace has created a new challenge for security. This means that security studies need to be updated to include the concept of cybersecurity, which is the output of the securitization of cyberspace. Our research contributes to existing debates about cyber security studies in three main ways. First, this research argues that despite scientific efforts over the past two decades, security studies regarding cybersecurity remains nascent to the extent that they need to be updated, broaden, and even challenging their previous perspectives and understandings. The research contributes to these scientific efforts by identifying the challenges facing this task. Second, the research criticizes the cyber security literature, especially the Hyper securitization of cyber threats and policies. Finally, the research critically analyzes the literature on the concept of cyber security and argues that they have failed to provide an appropriate view of this new concept, which is the gap that the paper finally tries to fill by presenting a new concept of cyber security consistent with the essence of the concept of security.

The obligation to save the goods in the international sales contract is one of the obligations of a special nature because of its nature, as it is sometimes imposed on the seller, if the goods are in his possession or at his disposal, and it is imposed on the buyer at other times if the goods are in his possession or at his disposal, and one of the cases in which the seller is obligated to save the goods is the case of the buyer's non-receipt of the goods, which makes their possession remain with the seller and at his disposal, so he is obligated to save it, and the other case, which is the subject of Our research is the case of the seller's obligation to save the goods because of the buyer's failure to pay the price, the buyer's failure to pay for the goods, does not make the seller obligated to deliver them until he meets the full price, and therefore the goods remain in his possession, and for the purpose of ensuring that the goods are not exposed to any damage International laws and agreements have shown that the party in this case is obliged to save the goods, and a condition has been set for that that the obligation to save due to the buyer's failure to pay for the goods subject to preservation if Payment and delivery were inseparable conditions..

It is undeniable that the rapid pace of technological advancement has cast its shadow over all branches of law, particularly with the emergence of artificial intelligence as a novel and pressing challenge that has imposed itself forcefully upon the framework of civil liability. The classical rules—built on the duality of human action and fault—are no longer sufficient to comprehend the nature of harms resulting from autonomous systems that possess learning and behavioral independence. This necessitates a fundamental re-evaluation of the core concepts of civil liability and their reinterpretation through the lens of artificial intelligence, by examining its technical and legal characteristics, and then identifying the nature of the harm it causes, distinguishing it from traditional forms of damage in terms of its essence, scope, and legal implications. Accordingly, this study focuses on the conceptual foundation by outlining the theoretical framework for both artificial intelligence and civil damage, and analyzing the structural impact that smart harm produces within the elements and foundations of civil liability, which now tends toward strict (objective) liability. The latter proves to be the more capable mechanism for balancing the demands of justice for the injured party, on the one hand, and the need for freedom of innovation and technological advancement on the other. Objective liability provides the legal system with more flexible tools to ensure civil protection within a legal environment that is evolving beyond human will. Ultimately, artificial intelligence has disrupted traditional legal concepts such as causation, fault, and directness, prompting a move toward adopting new legal rules based on risk, technical control, and economic benefit.

The impact of international variables on relations between Turkey and Greece, two countries with a long and complex history of tensions and conflicts, particularly in the areas of security, maritime borders, and the Cyprus issue. The research examines the influence of various international powers, such as the United States, the European Union, Russia, and the United Nations, on the dynamics of relations between the two countries.
The study reveals that international variables play a pivotal role in shaping Turkish-Greek relations. For example, American and European policies directly impact the regional balance between the two countries, as major powers seek to maintain regional stability and pursue their own interests. Military and political tensions in other regions, such as the Middle East or the Black Sea, also contribute to changing strategies pursued by Turkey and Greece.

The use of artificial intelligence technologies by global banks today has become an effective means of addressing the rapid developments in banking and the expansion of economic and commercial activities, along with the accompanying requirements for speed, credit, and reliability required in banking. This is no longer an objective or goal that banks seek to achieve or reach. This means that the use of these technologies has become a reality that requires everyone—legislators, judges, and jurists, as well as users and users of these technologies, such as clients or other parties and entities—to engage with these technologies with knowledge and awareness of the legal system that is supposed to govern them, on the one hand, and the legal implications of their use, on the other. This calls for us to investigate the effectiveness of using smart artificial intelligence applications in banking services and the legal implications of such use. This is achieved by examining their effectiveness, identifying the most important functions these technologies can perform, and identifying the most important obligations imposed on banks to comply legally with the use of artificial intelligence technologies in banking services.

This study addresses the mechanism through which a balance is established between the administration’s prerogative to directly enforce its decisions and the protection of the interests of individuals adversely affected by such decisions. It examines both the direct enforcement of administrative decisions and the non-suspensive effect of judicial appeals, as well as the potential risks these mechanisms may pose to individual interests.
The research highlights the extent to which administrative courts effectively contribute to achieving a fair equilibrium between, on the one hand, the administration’s authority to impose its decisions and, on the other, the need to safeguard individuals’ rights and interests against unlawful infringement. In essence, it seeks to clarify the role of administrative justice in reconciling public interest with private interests.

This research deals with the topic of women's political participation in Iraqi provincial councils, focusing on the Nineveh Provincial Council as an applied model. The research highlights the importance of women's political empowerment and their role in local decision-making, as well as the challenges they face such as social customs, lack of political support, and legal restrictions. The research also reviews the size of women's representation in the Nineveh Governorate Council, and compares the reality with legislation that guarantees women's rights to political representation, such as the election law and the quota system. The research concludes that it is necessary to activate the role of women more widely in local political life through awareness raising, institutional support, and reforming local policies to enhance their active participation

Our country, Iraq, is rich in animal wealth that ranks third after oil and agriculture, and is considered one of the prominent national wealth in the economic activity of many countries in the world if it is included in the forefront of the economic policy of countries and receives the required care through government support, and because the contribution of animal wealth in its direct and indirect form achieves the goals of sustainable development, including eliminating hunger and poverty and economic growth... Thus, countries, with their various controls, have been keen to state this protection in their legislation to guarantee the rights of future generations

The investigation is the exclusive jurisdiction of the investigating judge, as the investigation and evidence collection stage is considered a stage prior to the initial investigation and referring the case to the courts. The initial investigation cannot be conducted without the investigation and evidence collection stage, as it is considered a preliminary procedure for it. In addition, the investigation and evidence collection stage is one of the first stages in which the juvenile delinquent confronts him, which necessitates the necessity of taking into account the rights of the juvenile through the procedures followed at this stage. The main problem of the study is the absence of a specific legal text in the Juvenile Care Law that regulates the investigation and evidence collection procedures in juvenile cases. In connection with this, a set of questions are raised that highlight several legal problems, the most important of which is whether the Code of Criminal Procedure is applied with regard to investigation and evidence collection procedures in accordance with the reality in force? The nature of the study subject required following the analytical and comparative approach, by studying the legal texts related to investigation and evidence collection in the field of juveniles, and analyzing them in light of the opinions of jurisprudence and judicial rulings related to the subject, in a scientific and comparative methodological manner.

There is disagreement about the existence of political opposition in Iraq after 2003. Some deny it, while others say it exists but is ineffective. Based on this, we can formulate the research problem as follows:
Is there a political opposition in Iraq after 2003? Are there real reasons for its existence? What are the obstacles that stand in its way?
The research hypothesis is that the political opposition in Iraq after 2003 is still in its infancy. There are real reasons for its existence, but at the same time, there are obstacles that stand in its way.
The importance of the research lies in its addressing a topic that has not received its due share of research and discussion. Therefore, the ideas presented in the research are useful for activating the Iraqi opposition and making it a mirror of democratic action in the country.
The research relied on a systematic analysis approach.
It reached several conclusions, such as:
1- The quota system in Iraq, based on allocating quotas to all, deprived Iraq of the opportunity to establish a genuine opposition.
2- International recognition of the Iraqi opposition is the first pillar of increasing its effectiveness.
The research is divided into two sections, each containing two subsections. The first addresses the general theoretical framework of the political opposition, while the second discusses the features of the formation of the Iraqi political opposition, as well as the reasons for its formation and the obstacles hindering its work. The research concludes with a conclusion, deductions, proposals, and a list of sources.

Protecting minorities is a fundamental and important pillar for achieving sustainable social security in any society. Cultural, ethnic, and religious diversity is present in most countries around the world, so the rights of minorities must be guaranteed so that all members of society feel they are an integral part of it. This enhances a sense of belonging and loyalty. This, in turn, contributes to building trust among different segments of society and reduces the likelihood of conflict between them. Therefore, protecting minorities is a long-term investment in building safer and more prosperous societies.

Medical negligence is a prominent form of unintentional error that may constitute the moral element of an unintentional crime. Negligence occurs when a physician fails to provide the necessary care to accurately determine a patient's medical condition, neglects basic tests, fails to accurately assess the patient's symptoms, relies on insufficient diagnostic methods, or ignores or misinterprets test results. This results in serious harm to patients, potentially leading to death, which could have been avoided had the physician adhered to the required level of care and caution. Therefore, the issue of medical negligence has dimensions that combine law, medical ethics, and human rights. Although medical practice involves a degree of uncertainty and natural human error, this does not, under any circumstances, allow for negligence that causes harm to the patient. This calls for a clear understanding of the limits of criminalization in this regard, which helps establish a balanced legal framework that supports patients' rights and preserves the dignity of the medical profession. It also addresses weaknesses in legal systems, particularly in the field of medical diagnosis, and proposes practical solutions that strengthen the legal framework. Community confidence in the healthcare system.

The concept of the "third party" is among the most debated legal terms, as it carries significant legal importance, particularly in the academic domain, and this has been reflected in judicial orientations. In traditional jurisprudence, the term was understood differently from how it is conceived in modern legal thought. Previously, a third party was considered to be anyone other than the contracting parties, and this understanding remained confined within the scope of the principle of privity of contract for a period of time. However, changes in the industrial and technological fields necessitated the conclusion of a series of contracts interconnected by their subject matter or objective. This development led to a reconsideration of the notion of the third party in contractual relations. The present study seeks to clarify and analyze the impact of this conceptual transformation on the parties involved in the legal relationship.

Deductible costs are among the expenses mentioned in most tax legislation in most countries of the world, although tax legislation did not rely on a single term to refer to these costs. Some of them referred to the term “deductible costs,” as is the case in Iraq, or called them “deductible expenses,” as is the case in Egypt, or “deductible burdens” in France. However, all of these meanings and terms refer to these expenses that the legislator has required to be deducted from income. This is not the only difference that has affected these costs, but countries also differed in the nature of these costs that are taken into account. Some legislations have restricted the taking of these costs and relied on taking into account the costs that directly enter into the formation of income. This is the narrow trend in interpreting these expenses or costs, and some have expanded these costs and included expenses that do not enter into the production of income, neither closely nor remotely. However, the wisdom of the legislator saw that these expenses should be included as deductible costs based on tax justice or the legislator’s consideration that these costs affect the formation of income. Between this and that, it was necessary to clarify the position of the Iraqi legislator on these differences in.

The research addressed the study of the transferable electronic record as a subject of the harmful act, focusing on the legal challenges associated with protecting these records and settling disputes related to them, as it shows the adequacy of traditional rules to determine the applicable law, such as local law, and the extent of the need for modern rules that are compatible with the digital environment, such as the most relevant law that is based on a comprehensive analysis of the elements of the legal fact to ensure that justice is achieved for the parties. This principle is an effective tool for overcoming the traditional restrictions of rigid rules, as the law most closely related to the essence of the dispute is applied instead of relying on geographical location only. On the other hand, new network controls have been introduced, such as the law of the sender's state and the law of the receiving state, where the former focuses on the place of transmission to determine the law, while the latter depends on the place where the damage occurred. Despite the practical advantages of these controls, they may face application difficulties due to the immaterial nature of the digital environment and the multiplicity of affected locations.

The idea of public order is an unclear and unclear idea in the international community due to the special nature that this community carries, as this idea revolves around principles determined by time and place that prevail and are represented by supremacy from which rules that are described as mandatory emerge.
The idea of mandatory rules related to public order, according to the expression of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969, has been accepted in the international community, but it has not been defined in a way that negates ignorance. The study came with a hypothesis about the most important thing that could constitute principles from which rules that are described as mandatory emerge in the international community today.

The Arctic has become a focal point of geostrategic competition among major powers, driven by climate change and increased geographical accessibility. This study examines the key factors influencing this competition by analyzing the region's strategic importance, the geopolitical strategies of dominant states, and possible future scenarios of conflict or cooperation. Utilizing analytical, foresight, and comparative methodologies, the research explores the evolving power dynamics in the Arctic. The study highlights the significance of legal and institutional frameworks in managing international relations in the region. Ultimately, it aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of Arctic geopolitics and offer insights into maintaining regional and global stability.

This research examines the theoretical frameworks on which liberalism has relied to explain the expansion of NATO's mandate and scope after the Cold War and its transformation from a regional defense alliance to an international actor intervening in political and security issues beyond its traditional geographic scope. This transformation is analyzed through four main liberal theoretical foundations: Democratic peace theory: This theory assumes that democratic states do not fight each other, and that spreading democracy promotes world peace. Based on this, NATO intervention in countries like Afghanistan was justified to change political regimes and establish democratic systems. The End of History Thesis (by Francis Fukuyama): This postulated the end of the ideological conflict with the victory of liberal democracy as the highest stage of political development, which provided justification for the continued existence of NATO as a tool to protect this “new world order,” and justified its interventions in regions such as Kosovo to spread liberal values. The principle of interdependence: This assumes that the behavior of any unit in the international system affects others. Therefore, regional crises can threaten collective security, necessitating NATO intervention, either preventatively or preemptively, as occurred in Iraq and Afghanistan.Belief in liberal institutions: NATO is viewed as a liberal democratic institution that transcends the military dimension and represents a common framework for liberal states to coordinate security and defense policies. This became clear after the 1991 Rome Summit and the intervention in Bosnia as part of peacekeeping under the umbrella of the United Nations.
The study concludes that NATO expansion cannot be understood solely in terms of geopolitical shifts, but must also be analyzed within the liberal vision of international relations, which justifies foreign interventions to spread democracy, enhance stability, and promote global cooperative security.

The legal adaptation is the legal identification and description of all aspects of an action or event, both in form and content, to determine the law, rules, or texts governing the event or action. Legal adaptaation is therefore of great importance from both a legal and practical perspective.
So the clinical examination was adapted as an unnamed contract, by those rules and provisions which is governing such as these conducts, which was called a clinical examination contract or a diagnostic examination contract. Also through it the selecting of the responsibilities and rights of both sides to the contract was done in general terms.
This is in addition to these rights stipulated by private and general laws and instractions, at the private clinics. At the same time, laws and specific instractions to this area impose conditions that must be met for these clinics to open, ensuring a suitable environment for patients. However, despite the enactment of a special law on patients' rights and duties in the Kurdistan Region, which refers to patients' rights from several aspects, its shortcoming is the lack of an explicit penalty in a specific text for those who violate or infringe upon these rights, to ensure that patients have access to these rights.

This research sheds light on the issue of electoral system engineering in Iraq after 2003, by analyzing the development of electoral laws and the challenges they faced. Since the fall of the previous regime, Iraq has adopted several electoral systems, ranging from full proportional representation to multi-district systems, in attempts to establish democracy and ensure fair representation. However, these designs have been marked by inconsistency and political interference, leading to a decline in public trust in the electoral process and its outcomes.The study addresses major problems such as legal ambiguity, politicization of the electoral commission, weak voter education, and the persistent influence of sectarian and ethnic identities. It also discusses the negative impacts of these systems on political and social stability, particularly in terms of deepening political polarization and fragmenting the party system.In conclusion, the research proposes several reforms, including revising seat allocation formulas, ensuring the independence of the electoral commission, enhancing political awareness, and adopting a more balanced mixed electoral system that better responds to the needs of Iraqi society.

Unilateral legal actions are considered voluntary sources of obligation, and since these actions are characterized by an international character, this requires specifying the applicable law with regard to the obligation arising from them in cases of conflict of laws, but this matter is not embodied in Iraqi law and the majority of other laws.
This study concluded that it is possible to apply the law of will contained in Article (25) of the Iraqi Civil Code to unilateral legal actions, but it is not an appropriate control for them, because of the problems it raises that may lead to the interest of the disposer prevailing at the expense of the beneficiary. This study suggested adopting The officer of the place of conclusion of the disposition, and if not, then the officer of the residence of the originator of the disposition, as basic controls for governing these dispositions as they are more valid to apply to them than the law of will.

The first decade of the 21st century witnessed the discovery of numerous gas fields in the Eastern Mediterranean, prompting regional states to intensify energy exploration and extraction efforts. This development necessitated enhanced coordination among these countries to regulate investments through an organization uniting producers, consumers, and transit states, while formulating and implementing programs to advance the gas industry. These efforts culminated in the establishment of the East Mediterranean Gas Forum (EMGF) in late 2019, which was formally designated as an international organization in September 2020.
This study examines the strategic significance of the Eastern Mediterranean region and its energy reserve levels, the foundational stages of the EMGF, and its objectives—which seek to formulate a unified vision and institutionalize dialogue on natural gas exploitation policies. Additionally, it analyzes the forum’s role in fostering a sustainable regional market to utilize the Eastern Mediterranean’s energy resources for the collective welfare of the region’s populations.
Crucially, the study addresses the geopolitical constraints hindering the forum’s efficacy, particularly its non-inclusive membership, which excludes certain politically and economically influential states. This limitation has undermined its capacity to deliver comprehensive solutions to energy extraction challenges and, at times, has rendered it instrumental in countering opposing states especially against the backdrop of complex maritime boundary disputes among Eastern Mediterranean nations.

The increasing risks of social media and their threat to national and social security require state intervention and regulation of their use. The extent of censorship varies from one country to another, but most countries have legislators who regulate administrative censorship of electronic websites, including Egypt and France. However, the Iraqi legislator has not issued legislation in this regard. However, the Communications and Media Commission has issued a regulation to regulate digital content in Iraq, numbered (1) for the year 2023. This is the first official regulation to regulate digital content in Iraq, but it has been subject to criticism, which prompted the Commission to reconsider its texts, and it has not yet been approved. The administration's methods for monitoring social media sites have varied, the most important of which is licensing, whether licensing the creation of websites and web pages or obtaining a license for advertising and promotion. Among the most important methods used by the administration is the establishment of observatories. In Iraq, a committee has been formed to monitor inappropriate content, and in Egypt, a computer and information network crimes department has been established. Blocking and banning are also used, by blocking sites that violate the law, public morals, and societal values. Both the Iraqi Ministry of Communications and the Communications and Media Commission have the authority to block sites and pages that violate public morals and ethics and publish inappropriate content. It has become clear to us that the legal basis for the crime of inappropriate content is Articles 403 and 404 of the current Iraqi Penal Code. Cases related to inappropriate content are brought before the Media and Publications Court through the Inappropriate Content Monitoring Committee or through individuals filing a complaint with the court.

The relationship between economic policies and violent extremism is complex and multidimensional, as economic factors play a pivotal role in shaping the environment that may either fuel or curb extremism. Economic policies that combat corruption, promote economic justice, create job opportunities, and improve public services can reduce the appeal of extremist ideologies. Conversely, policies that deepen corruption, poverty, and inequality can create a fertile ground for extremism. Therefore, economic policies should be an integral part of a comprehensive strategy to counter violent extremism.

The justifications for the globalization of criminal law relate to the phenomenon of crime, given that crime began to take on different forms after the technological revolution that swept the world and changed the course of crime and its data from the real physical world to the virtual world. Accordingly, traditional legal texts, both substantive and procedural, are no longer able to confront crime in its new form. Therefore, they need to keep pace with the globalization of crime through the globalization of the criminal text as well. This can only be achieved through a set of procedures that fall on the state without compromising or diminishing its sovereignty. Some of these procedures are achieved by reviewing existing criminal legislation, or by concluding bilateral agreements or joining collective agreements that adopt the protection of human rights, or that prohibit the practice of some criminal activities to limit the spread of the criminal phenomenon.

The subject of the study lies in the role of Banks in Providing various and multiple banking services to banking customers, as banking services are a group of activites and function provided by Banks related to managing and investing money. The role of Banks is highighted by providing electronic banking services according to the customer's desire and need, speed of completion, and saving effort and time for them, while taking into account electronic security and customer privacy in light of information openness and preventing hacking or violating the right to privacy and preventing its exploitaion in an illegal manner.

Confession evidence is one of the oldest and most important means of proof in various legal systems. It is one of the pieces of evidence relied upon by the judicial system to prove a crime and achieve justice and equality. A confession is the accused's admission of having committed a crime. It is considered strong evidence, but in some cases, it must be supported by other evidence to ensure justice and prevent the exploitation of the judicial system. On the other hand, Islamic law considers confession one of the strongest forms of evidence of a crime, but it sets precise conditions to ensure that the confession is truthful and free from any suspicion. Sharia law requires that the confessor be an adult of sound mind, and that the confession be made of free will and without any form of coercion, in order to achieve justice and guarantee individual rights. This research was conducted descriptively and analytically using a comparative approach. This research aims to study the legal conditions for confession to a crime under Iraqi law and compare them with the conditions applicable in Islamic law. Under Iraqi law, the legal conditions for confessing to a crime are set within a strict framework to ensure its validity and reliability. The confession must be voluntary, free from any coercion or pressure, and issued by a person of full legal capacity.

International water-related issues have become a growing concern around the world. As a result, countries are seeking solutions based on international cooperation and diplomatic action. One of the most prominent of these solutions is Blue Diplomacy. This study examines theoretical aspects, highlighting the most prominent applications that have occurred around the world in this area, which can be described as Blue Diplomacy.
This study also addressed theoretical shortcomings in the concept, as well as focusing on concepts similar to the concept of Blue Diplomacy, with an emphasis on identifying the differences between them. This study attempts to link the growing international interest in the water issue with Blue Diplomacy by identifying the most prominent mechanisms used by countries to put Blue Diplomacy into practice, particularly in global discussions taking place to overcome points of contention on water issues.
This study addresses what can be called water problems and competition over water resources for international cooperation around the world by introducing the concept of international water cooperation, which has come to be called Blue Diplomacy, with its various practical aspects.

Taxable capacity or tax ability represents the extent to which an individual’s income and wealth can bear the burden of taxes. Financial thought has emphasized the necessity of establishing the principle of tax justice among taxpayers in a manner that considers taxable capacity, where taxes are imposed at varying rates that increase with the taxpayer’s income and decrease as it declines. The concept of taxable capacity necessitates the application of certain principles, such as the exemption of the minimum amount necessary for living, consideration of the taxpayer's family burdens, differentiation in tax treatment based on the source of income, and the principle of progressive tax rates.
Since taxes are among the most significant sources of state revenue, they are generally imposed on all taxpayers. However, the application of the principles of justice, in general, and tax justice, in particular, requires taking into account all personal circumstances surrounding taxpayers. The state’s role is not limited to obliging individuals to pay taxes; rather, it must also consider their taxable capacity and family circumstances. Accordingly, most tax legislations have sought to provide a degree of personal exemptions, referred to as "allowances," which are legally exempt from taxation.

The training and development contract stipulated in the Emergency Food Security and Development Support Law No. 2 of 2022 is considered an employment contract. Therefore, the administration is obligated, when drafting the contract with its contractors, to subject it to the Labor Law, both in terms of the obligations incumbent upon the parties to the contractual relationship and the legal consequences arising therefrom. Otherwise, the administration\'s actions constitute a clear legal violation

The Intellectual extremism is no longer merely a temporary phenomenon or a trait that appears and fades easily; rather, it has become a tangible reality affecting individuals and social institutions alike. Intellectual extremism is not solely dependent on the social structure but is also shaped by environmental factors, fluctuating in intensity based on the reasons for its emergence and the extent of interaction and influence of these factors.
Intellectual extremism refers to exceeding the bounds of moderation and balance in human thought, potentially leading to behaviors that harm both individuals and society across political, economic, social, and cultural spheres. Those who adopt extremist ideologies often believe they possess absolute truth, creating a gap between them and the social fabric to which they belong. Therefore, intellectual extremism is considered a serious phenomenon that poses a threat to societal stability.

In 2024, Lebanon witnessed a series of unprecedented explosions caused by modified personal communication devices known as “pagers,” which had been rigged with small explosive materials. These devices were in the possession of both civilians and members of Hezbollah-affiliated forces. The attacks, carried out without conventional weaponry, resulted in significant casualties and widespread damage, raising serious legal questions about their classification under international law, Two main legal perspectives emerge regarding the nature of these acts. The first considers them war crimes, as they occurred amid an armed conflict, with indiscriminate attacks violating the principles of distinction and proportionality under the Geneva Conventions. The second views them as crimes against humanity, given the systematic nature of the attacks and their deliberate targeting of civilian populations.
This situation also prompts examination of jurisdictional competence—specifically, whether Lebanese national courts or the International Criminal Court (ICC) should have authority to prosecute such acts. The study concludes with key findings and recommendations aimed at strengthening accountability and preventing impunity for international crimes of this nature.

Although changes in the territory of a State raise numerous questions about the succession of States in international responsibility, it has recently been addressed by both researchers and the International Law Commission after having been referred to very rarely or perhaps non- existent, This is due to developments in jurisprudential trends, judicial rulings, and State practices regarding the possibility of transferring succession in international responsibility, Accordingly, through analyzing the principles and foundations that justify negative and positive succession, we have reached the conclusion that it is not possible to establish a rule that governs all cases of succession due to the differences in their circumstances on the one hand and the differences in the circumstances surrounding them on the other, Therefore, we recommend further studies on this topic by researchers, States, and the International Law Commission to contribute to developing appropriate and fair solutions for each case individually.

Tolerance is one of the pillars of Islam and Islamic thought, as it holds great significance that positively impacts political life, social reality, and the prevailing culture. Tolerance serves as a fundamental pillar encompassing values in all their aspects, with its source being the Holy Qur’an and the Prophetic Sunnah. It has become an inherent feature of ruling authorities throughout Islamic history, from the era of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) to the Ottoman Empire, which established a living historical model of coexistence and tolerance while acknowledging differences.
As a deeply rooted principle in the foundations of Islam and its open-minded intellectual framework, others were not forced to accept Islam; rather, they were accepted and allowed to exist within a framework of rights and responsibilities. This granted non-Muslims the ability to live in peace and security alongside Muslims within a shared society. The spread of tolerance in the Ottoman society can be attributed to a combination of social, political, and geographical factors. However, the most significant factor was religion, which ultimately shaped the Ottoman society into one that was harmonious, interactive, and open, respecting diversity within itself.
This approach to tolerance continued until the late period of the Ottoman state, which witnessed unrest and turmoil before the outbreak of World War I in 1914. This confirms that tolerance was a fundamental principle and an essential component of the Ottoman political and social fabric.

This study examined the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on government contracting from the perspective of Islamic law and jurisprudence, reviewing legal and Sharia provisions related to pandemics and their impact on contract execution. The study reviewed the applicability of the theory of force majeure and emergency circumstances to the pandemic in positive laws, and the resulting partial or total exemption from contractual obligations. Relevant jurisprudential rules, such as the principle of "harm is removed" and "hardship brings relief," were also analyzed, and their applicability to government contracts.
The study concluded that the pandemic may constitute a force majeure that leads to the suspension or termination of some government contracts, depending on the nature of the obligations and contractual terms. The study also highlighted the flexibility of Islamic jurisprudence in addressing crises through mitigation mechanisms and fair settlement between parties. The study recommended the need to develop legislation to address future emergencies and enhance flexibility in government contracts to accommodate exceptional circumstances.

The relationship between public employment and the state holds significant importantance in legal regulation،therefore most legislations governing public employment establish mandatory rules that both parties in the relationship must adhere to it regulates the contractual relationship btween the employee on one side and the administration on the other it also defines the rights of the public employee and the obligations and duties imposed by public employment،in addition to clarifying and explaining the manner in which the employment relationship is terminated in accordance with the law to ensure the protection of the public employee .

Conflicts are an ancient phenomenon in human societies, and at the state level, particularly in countries experiencing security instability, such as those in the Middle East. Major powers use these conflicts as an arena for resolving their conflicts, making these smaller countries their victims, as is the case with Syria.

The success of terrorist organizations in maintaining traditional resources to finance terrorist operations is sufficient to push them away from virtual currencies and their usual risks, as long as they are able to sell oil and transfer funds between their territories, and as long as their funds remain safe from attacks and persecution by the international community. Encrypted virtual currencies are characterized by high degrees of secrecy, privacy, and decentralization - and extremist religious groups And terrorism that adopts violence as a means of operation and expansion, and studying indicators indicating the growing importance of these currencies in circulation, exchange, and commercial transactions, nd in financing extremist religious groups and organizations, and financing the purchase of weapons and equipment used by these groups. It is a decentralized currency with no competent authority, and no central bank responsible for issuing it, and it is not subject to the restrictions of international banking and monetary institutions. This is a significant advantage that has attracted many individuals and groups to its circulation. Had international institutions and organizations been able to subject this currency to international oversight, or to a central authority, it would have lost its most important advantage, and terrorist and extremist organizations would have been unable to exploit it further.

The topic of "The Commercial Nature of Oil Investment Contracts" is considered one of the vital subjects that clearly intersects between branches of public and private law—especially in the absence of an explicit Iraqi legislation that governs the legal nature of such contracts. This underscores the importance of the research conducted by Dr. Thamer Ismail Hussein, as it stands out as a solid academic study that seeks to address a central issue: determining the legal nature of oil investment contracts by posing a fundamental question—Are these contracts administrative in nature, thus falling under public law where the state exercises its authority as a sovereign power? Or are they commercial contracts concluded by the state in its capacity as a regular legal person, thereby subject to the domain of private law and its general rules?
The researcher begins the study with the hypothesis that investment activity in the oil sector is not limited to a sovereign dimension, but inherently contains purely commercial elements. This, in turn, necessitates a legal classification that aligns with investment requirements, market rules, and the principles governing a free economy. The analysis relies on several relevant Iraqi laws, notably: the Investment Law No. (13) of 2006, the Private Investment in Crude Oil Refining Law No. (64) of 2007, and the Iraqi Commercial Law No. (30) of 1984, in addition to petroleum law jurisprudence and principles of international commercial arbitration.
In this context, the researcher analyzes various jurisprudential trends regarding the classification of oil contracts, reviewing opinions that categorize them as administrative contracts, as well as those that consider them international agreements. He ultimately favors the view that classifies them as private commercial contracts, based on several indicators—most notably: the absence of exceptional clauses granting the state extraordinary privileges, the balanced obligations between the parties, the consensual nature of these contracts free from coercive state intervention, and the preference of parties for arbitration over administrative judiciary.
Based on the arguments and evidence presented, the researcher offers a coherent and well-organized analysis, demonstrating strong analytical skills in bridging theoretical frameworks with the practical applications of oil contracts in Iraq. The study further highlights the need to reassess the current legal frameworks governing oil contracts, and calls for the unification of their legal regulation through independent legislation that clearly defines their legal nature—thereby eliminating confusion caused by overlapping laws and fostering a legally attractive environment for investment that ensures a balance between state interests and investor protection.