Journal of International studies

The Spanish Socialist Labour's Party has had an important position in the Spanish party system since the first democratic elections in 1977. Its 21-year presence at the head of the country's executive authority, and its long presence in regional and local governments, has given it great importance in political life in Spain. Although it has been subjected to several attempts at ideological revision, as well as painful restructuring of its leadership on several occasions, the party has always maintained its potential as a reliable electoral alternative, even in eras in which it has remained outside governmental functions. However, from 2008 until the present, the party has shown some ideological confusion, loss of the tendency for party conflict, difficulties in strengthening its national leadership, and accelerating electoral decline, making the party face its deepest crises, especially after the emergence of new political parties since 2014 competing in The centre, left and right movements, along with other traditional parties.

Qatar did not have a distinct political or economic position, Gulf or Arab, to a large State, until (Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani) came to power in 1995, as the country witnessed rapid changes in various political, economic, media, cultural and sports fields, giving it a new position in the world. The Gulf and regional arena, with the growing aspiration and ambition to have its say in the Middle East and the global arena. The 2022 FIFA World Cup, in Doha presented a great opportunity with the attendance of between 1.2 and 1.5 million fans, while about 5 billion people around the world watched it. Thus, getting to know Qatar is of great importance, enhancing its tourism perspective and future aspirations.
Sports diplomacy has played a pivotal role in the foreign policy of Qatar, since it drew the first features of its strategy for building and marketing national character. It was based on eight main pillars, which were as follows, intensifying effective involvement in international sports bodies and associations in various sports. Building media capabilities in the sports field, to make Qatar among the central countries in this field. Strengthening the continued presence in sports agendas, by intensifying the successful organization of major sporting events at levels, International and regional, Building major, technologically distinguished and environmentally friendly sports facilities, and opening innovative health facilities for health services for athletes, Commercial investment in international sports teams.

In This research, we discusse one of the most prominent controversial issues between the Iraqi federal government and the Kurdistan Regional Government, which is the issue of the dispute over oil and gas, which developed into disputes over fields, shares, and financial returns. While the constitution imposed on the regional government to allocate to the federal government financial returns from the source oil. from its fields as long as it receives its full share from the federal general budget, However, the regional government often neglected to monitor these financial revenues, which turned the dispute over oil and gas into a dispute over financial matters and greatly affected many aspects, most notably the issue of the salaries of the region’s employees, which were cut due to the federal government’s decision not to provide the region with a specific portion of budget funds commensurate with the revenues. The financials owed to the federal government by the region.
The research addressed this topic by addressing the issue of the constitutional dispute, then addressing the issue of corruption in the oil industry in the Kurdistan region, and then addressing the future of the oil dispute over the relationship between the federal governments and the Kurdistan region.

The water issue is one of the most important issues at the level of international relations, due to its vital role in the sustainability of the economic and social stability of the state. Given this importance, the water issue has occupied a priority for the Turkish decision-maker, within the framework of Turkish policy towards geographically neighboring countries, especially Iraq, given the size of the influence. This policy has multi-dimensional repercussions on Iraqi national security. The emergence of Turkey as an active force in regional and international interactions made it tend towards employing the tools of its power in its foreign policy towards regional neighboring countries, and the water issue formed one of the means of Turkey’s policy towards Iraq, with the aim of achieving Turkish national interests at the expense of Iraq’s national interest, which will necessarily be reflected in Iraqi national security represents a new challenge for the Iraqi decision-maker in the ability to confront these challenges to ensure the continuation of the process of sustainable economic development, and to enhance the internal stability of Iraq

In the twentieth century, concepts spread that have connotations related to the philosophy of their creators. These concepts constitute material for use within the framework of international relations, including the concept of digital diplomacy.
The world has witnessed a significant and noticeable development in information technology in general, especially with regard to the digital field, as this development has contributed to making the world a small village in which it is possible to know what is happening in all countries through technology and digital development, as this dangerous development has come to dominate all international relations. . . Especially what is known as digital diplomacy, as it has come to dominate all areas of international and global affairs .
Keywords: diplomacy, digital, tools, international relations.

Cyberwarfares are a new form of warfare that develops in means, methods, and even the results reached by military wars. It takes place in a very wide space, crossing geographical borders quickly and easily, relying on information like technology and communication with electronic weapons to harm the opponent. It extends beyond military aspects, as it can include targeting vital infrastructure such as electricity, water, and communications, as well as attacks targeting the economic and financial sectors.

The energy security element has always occupied a very important place in the security strategy of the State of Israel, because it represents a weak point for its power due to the lack of energy sources represented by oil and natural gas necessary for the infrastructure of its energy sources, and because it lacks fossil energy reserves and is unable to exploit Arab oil for political reasons, It initially relied on coal to generate electrical power, and was replaced by natural gas as a new element in Israeli energy security. The rate of its use rose to 40% by the year 2020, compared to a decrease in the rate of use of coal. Since its establishment, it has been in a constant and diligent effort to secure sources of oil and gas and alternatives. To transport it without going through the Suez Canal

Decentralization is one of the components of democratic political systems, as it is based on granting local parties the freedom to organize their affairs and maintain their priorities, and then more political participation enhanced by government response to public needs. Because this pivotal role is so important, it is mainly focused on the presence of bodies that are aware of the political function and absorb the facts of the reality that matters. It consolidates the efficiency of the state's regulatory and administrative apparatus, the basis of which is the heads of local units.
The expansion of the levels of local government in Iraq constitutes one of the innovations of political change after the year (2003) to adapt the variables of reality and improve the conditions of the local units, as the efforts of their institutions were previously devoted to representing the will of the central authority and refraining from meeting the requirements of the local community or activating its participation in political interaction. Hence, the expansion led to The decentralization that followed the political change in Iraq led to the difficulty of understanding the role and function of these institutions and the weak response to their contents and the nature of their various roles, which was reflected in the legislative, regulatory and institutional framework that assumes defining the relationship, responsibilities and jurisdiction that ensures consistency of roles and efficient performance of local institutions and gives them the ability to raise their productivity, especially since the role The largest is undertaken by heads of local units represented by governors. Therefore, the study concluded to develop solutions that lie in overcoming the problem of the study and contribute to creating an encouraging environment for developing the institutional performance of local government units in Iraq, activating the role of heads of local units, and supporting their institutional capabilities

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan took serious steps on the path to reform, and the year 1989 is considered the beginning of those steps. Political reform, which was represented by the restoration of parliamentary life, was then followed by the activation of party life, followed by the announcement of the national charters and the draft national agenda. It witnessed reforms in various fields, and parliamentary life had witnessed progress due to the movement. Political, public freedoms, and the development of civil society, and Jordan remained stable throughout the outbreak of protests in the Arab countries of the so-called (Arab Spring), which extended a period of protests in Jordan, but they remained on the outskirts without reaching the capital, Amman, which forced the king to dissolve Parliament and call for early elections. Regarding the internal and external challenges to the political system, they are represented by the external terrorism that surrounds the Kingdom and its regional neighbors, as well as the obsession with the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, and the Syrian refugee crisis that has burdened the political system .

Iraq is facing a dire water crisis due to the decrease in the quantities and degradation in the qualities of the water reaching its borders with the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, Iraq's water position is even worsening due to several factors including the continuous increase in the population size, the climate change which made Iraq the fifth country in the world that affected negatively according to UN report about most affected countries with climate change, the implementation of hydrological projects within the upstream part of the catchment and mismanagement of water resources within Iraq made the problem graver.
In case the situation remains as it is, Iraq will experience many problems in health, environment, economy, and security. To solve the problem of water scarcity in Iraq, two parallel lines of action are to be considered, the first one reach agreements with riparian parties, and the second, develop a long–term strategy to make consumption of water to its minimum, piacular in agriculture sector by developing a plan that takes into consideration the possibility of reducing crops that consume a lot of water .

The end of the Iran-Iraq war had a significant impact on Iran's move towards not directly confronting the export of the Islamic Revolution and adopting a policy of openness towards the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council. This is what happened with particular force after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990, and at various political and commercial levels, taking advantage of the absence of the Iraqi role. Despite this, it mobilized its loyalists in the GCC countries to incite riots, stir up unrest, and cause explosions. The nuclear program also had a significant impact, which constitutes the most prominent controversial point in the region.

After 2003, Iraq suffered from the emergence of a displacement crisis, that is, the forced movement of people within the country. The problem here is that the displacement was forced, as the displacement came as a result of the outbreak of hostilities in residential areas, or a lack of a sense of security.
The fighting between a party that adopted violence and government forces, in the absence of government plans to manage the post-hostilities phase, caused harm to the interests of displaced individuals, as displacement affected a group of residents, and the reason for this was the weakness of government procedures in dealing with these matters. The problem.
Addressing the problem of displacement remained subject to political controversy and not to the logic of the state’s interests in imposing civil peace and societal stability. The problem caused ongoing repercussions that took on political, security, economic, and social manifestations.

There is no doubt that the United States of America has practiced its foreign policy on Iraq for a long time, passing through several stages represented by state leaders and presidents during their periods of assuming office in the United States. Even if the personalities differ, the goal remains the same, which is to protect American national security as well as protect the security of Israel and achieve... What it wants to achieve in terms of protecting its national interests is not only national interests, but all economic and political matters related to it, and preserving its global position by imposing its policy on the Middle East region, including Iraq, as it is considered a vital area of its influence, passing through historical stages until the era of President Trump, whose strategy was confused and different. Largely than previous administrations, his goal was the geostrategic and economic importance that Iraq enjoys, and he aspired to obtain oil by any means, and his goal was also to limit Iranian influence in Iraq by subjecting it to international monitoring, as he was a commercial man before he was a politician. American policy towards Iraq has faced serious challenges based on the development of American policy first and the management of the Middle East and Iraq file second, and this is what will be known and presented in the research .

The Russian role in the African continent increased significantly after the year 2000 and Putin assumed power, as he made Russia present in every region of the world vital to Russian interests, including Africa, as the latter is considered one of the most prominent regions of the world in which there are opportunities for Russian strategic expansion vis-à-vis Western countries. And the United States of America, which Russia is clearly exploiting militarily, politically and economically

The phenomenon of climate change is one of the most important problems resulting from the increase in human activities and the increase in the consumption of non-renewable energy, as it cannot be ignored in terms of environmental degradation and the exploitation of natural resources in a way that leaves great damage similar to the danger of wars to humanity and also a threat to international peace and security.
The signs of climate change began to appear in the wake of the industrial revolution, when scientists began to warn of the imbalance of the climate equation of the planet due to the increase in the proportion of greenhouse gases and their high concentration in the atmosphere to maintain the earth's temperature as a result of man's dependence on fossil fuels as the main source of energy for energy by an estimated 78% of the energy used in the world as a result of emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), which is primarily responsible for global warming.
Because these changes have an impact on the countries of the world, the majority of countries have tended to hold conferences and agreements that limit climate pollution and help mitigate its current and future effects, including Iraq, as it began to conclude agreements and attend conferences that help it to speed up the application of strategies that achieve the desired purpose of these conferences. With this research.
Keywords: climate, human security, obstacles, repercussions, Iraqi strategy.

Iraq is working to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals, and achieving the sixteenth goal related to peace, justice and strong institutions is the beginning to achieve other goals, which faces several challenges, including societal fragility, terrorism, the spread of organized crime, corruption, loss of confidence in the political system, poor institutional performance, the components of good governance, domestic violence, restriction of freedom of opinion and expression, discrimination, hate speech and challenges to the judiciary. To counter this, several possibilities were put forward, including: achieving community integration, social justice, achieving the requirements of peaceful coexistence, stabilizing the pillars of peace-building, applying transitional justice mechanisms, rehabilitating the security and military system, achieving economic development, dismantling the corruption system, holding official institutions accountable and monitored, combating hate speech, reducing domestic violence, combating organized crime and strengthening the independence of the judiciary. In general, these capabilities may contribute to meeting the challenges if there is serious political will, rational plans drawn according to solid data, appropriate funding and continuous evaluation to correct gaps during implementation, thus eradicating poverty and hunger, providing basic services, quality education and decent work..Etc. The opposite is true, as their impact may be limited, hence the spread of poverty and hunger, the deterioration of services and education, and high unemployment ..Etc.

The digital trans formation in Iraq aims to study the conceptual framework in terms of what digital transformation is, the most important goals it seeks to achieve, and a set of strategic dimensions to achieve this transformation. The concept of e-government and its most important benefits was discussed. In terms of the applied aspect of the research, the reality of e-government in Iraq was studied, and the focus was on the basic steps that Iraq followed in order to transition towards e-government, the most important strategic goals and indicators of the project, and the most important obstacles that stand in the way of implementing the digital transformation plan in Iraq.

The political history of Iraq lacked any real democratic practice, since the formation of the Iraqi state in 1921 until April 2003. There were attempts at democracy in different and varying periods of time, but they did not last due to the political, economic and social conditions that accompanied them, as well as the authoritarian practices of the ruling regimes that succeeded them on him.
Then talk about the democratic process and democratic transformation in Iraq became on the table in the political, social and cultural corridors, since the overthrow of the previous authoritarian regime on April 9, 2003, as the opportunity was created for the Iraqi people to establish a modern civil constitutional democratic state, and to establish a new Iraq that pursues democracy as a model of governance in which all participate. Sects, groups, and ethnicities, and according to the declared goal of all political, social, and religious forces. But the question arose about how to implement democracy in Iraq, and what are the foundations upon which it is based?.

The importance of cybersecurity in Iraq is increasing with rapid technological advancements and the widespread use of digital technologies across various sectors. It encompasses all measures taken by the government and companies to protect digital systems and information from cyber threats. The challenges in the field of cybersecurity in Iraq are significant. With technological advancement, cyber threats are also increasing, necessitating more advanced security measures. Many human resources in Iraq suffer from a lack of preparation and cyber awareness, increasing their vulnerability. There may be challenges in updating and improving the infrastructure of information technology and telecommunications, as well as the need to improve legislation and policies related to cybersecurity to ensure the effectiveness of preventive and response measures. However, there is also room for opportunities in cybersecurity in Iraq. Collaboration with international countries and organizations can provide opportunities for exchanging experiences and support in the field of cybersecurity, developing and enhancing skills and cyber awareness for the workforce, thereby enhancing preparedness and resilience against threats. Investing in cybersecurity technology can provide an opportunity to enhance the ability to face challenges. Cybersecurity in Iraq appears as an important field that requires sustained attention and efforts to enhance digital protection and ensure the continuity of technological development

The strategy of East Asian countries in confronting the threats posed by North Korea aims to achieve stability in the region. This strategy relies on cooperation between Japan and South Korea and their alliance with the United States to exert pressure on North Korea and confront its nuclear threat, given its possession of nuclear and ballistic weapons. Additionally, it involves imposing economic sanctions on North Korea. In general, Japan and South Korea seek to utilize all available means to pressure North Korea and achieve stability in the regi, Therefor, North Korea seeks help from China, since China is its only ally in the East Asian region, and China considers that any threat directed at it, as China adopts a flexible strategy in face of North Korea threats

The research topic is focused on an important stage in the history of Syria and Lebanon during the period from 2011-2023، that is، the period of the Syrian crisis and beyond. The importance of this research comes from the importance of this stage in Syrian- Lebanese relations، which is the stage in which Syria resorted to gain the affection of the Lebanese side after the revolution that occurred in Syria and the occurrence of... The demonstrations and protests that demanded the fall of Bashar al-Assad's regime and knowledge of the Lebanese government's position on this crisis and the extent of its impact on Lebanese society.

Egypt and Turkey are the two largest countries In the Middle East and the eastern Mediterranean, and they both have an important geographical and strategic location, as Turkey’s lands are distributed between the continents of Asia and Europe and represent a link between them. It also oversees the most Important seas and straits of the world, such as the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, and the Bosphorus and Dardanelles Straits, whichh are An important center for energy transfer, as it Is adjacent to the most important oil countries in the world, such as Iraq, Russia, and Iran. Likewise, Egypt Is located between two continents, Asia and Africa, as the Sinai Peninsula represents the Asian part of it, and overlooks two Important seas, the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, whichh separate them. The Suez Canal Is the shortest sea route between Europe and the countries of the Indian Ocean and the Western Pacific Ocean, and It is the most used navigation channel around the world. The two countries also share military superiority In the MIddle East region, as they both occupy first places In the region. They are also classified among the twenty most powerful countries militarily In the world. Turkey Is a major actor and the second most Important military force In NATO, and in terms of population density, Egypt and Turkey are also among the twenty most populous countries In the world, and together they constitute half of the total population of the entire Middle East, and the two countries occupy an important place In the heart of the Islamic world, as Egypt is home to the Al-Azhar Mosque Foundation, the most important Islamic university In the world and one of the most important tools of Egyptian soft power, while Turkey was home to the last Islamic caliphate for nearly four centuries, and the importance of these two countries In the region constituted an Incentive for intense competition between them to play greater roles In political decision-making and management Alliances and the nature of regimes in the Middle East.

Since ancient times, the Central Asian region has been a crossing and crossroads for the movement of people and ideas between the great powers. It also includes an arena for political competition between empires and extremist powers struggling for influence and domination, and a military division that is always coveted by all those seeking economic gains. It is a geostrategic region in the region that lies between the Kozin Sea in the west and Mongolia in the east, and the borders of Russia in the north and the borders in the south. . The military region is divided into five newly formed states: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The entire region was within the Soviet Union until 1991 and the birth of these countries The strategic importance of Central Asia lies in its location as an ideal focal point. The one who dominates the region opens the doors to the vital depth of Russia in the north, the depth of China in the southeast, and the depth of the Indian subcontinent in the south. Dominance over it also guarantees control over the very important Caspian Sea, and its hegemon enjoys complete control over the corridors linking Russia, China, and the Indian subcontinent, and the corridors linking China, the Far East, and EuropeThe strategic importance of Central Asia lies in its location as an ideal focal point. The one who dominates the region opens the doors to the vital depth of Russia in the north, the depth of China in the southeast, and the depth of the Indian subcontinent in the south. Dominance over it also guarantees control over the very important Caspian Sea, and its hegemon enjoys complete control over the corridors linking Russia, China, and the Indian subcontinent, and the corridors linking China, the Far East, and Europe

Life in general, and humanity in particular, cannot exist, or continue and develop without water, and the availability of water varies from one region to another, as well as from one country to another. Given that the Arab region is located in the driest part of the world where there is less rainfall, the renewable water resources in the Arab region They are limited, and even relatively rare, compared to the growing population. In addition, to the fact that the surface water resources in most Arab countries are shared waters with countries outside the region, which threatens the security and safety of these resources despite the international agreements concluded between both upstream and downstream countries. The water crisis in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers represents a model for the water crisis in the Middle East. Turkey, as a country of origin, has a geographical and strategic advantage represented in complete control of each of these rivers in the face of the two riparian states with it, Syria and Iraq. The water problem between Iraq and Turkey emerged for the first time in the mid-seventies of the last century. The impact of Turkey’s construction of the Kiban Dam, one of the huge dams and storing water in it, and the water shortage in Iraq has reached a great extent, due to the deficit in the water balance between the limited supply and increasing demand for water and if the core of our research is focused on the water problem between Iraq and Turkey, then the purpose of our research, in addition to its scientific dimensions, and the revealing lights it can shed on its multiple aspects, is to alert the present and future of this country from the dangerous and possibly catastrophic consequences and consequences that the future of Iraq may face. As a result of water projects related to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers by the neighboring countries of Iraq, Turkey, Syria, and Iran, which led to these countries bypassing Iraq's water rights in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers as a result of the illegal practices followed in the projects of the mentioned countries.

The electoral system is only a means to achieve a set of goals، the most important of which is achieving justice and equality، and reaching a kind of political stability in the country. However، a good observer of the path of the political process in Iraq after 2003 will notice that choosing the type and form of the electoral system has become an end in itself. itself، which increased the process of complexity of the Iraqi political scene، and then reflected in the destabilization of confidence in the process of transition towards a democratic system، since Iraq left the system of proportional representation according to one district in the first elections after the year 2003، and the shift towards a system of proportional representation at the governorate level، and the controversy There is a heated debate between political and academic circles over the form of the most appropriate electoral system for Iraq، This controversy and the search for an appropriate electoral system has always been subject to the law of proportionality in accordance with partisan interest. What one party deems appropriate، the other party does not deem as such، until this method of managing the state and giving priority to factional interest over the interest of society resulted in a kind of popular dissatisfaction that reached its peak in the October protests. The first was in 2019، which was able to impose on the ruling parties the form of a new electoral system based on the majority according to multiple electoral districts، and this system was effectively implemented in the 2021 elections، but despite this، talk has now returned again about the necessity of adopting another electoral system.

The world is currently witnessing a great demand for natural gas as it is the cleanest fuel in addition to having the lowest gas emissions, and the interest of global energy markets in natural gas was a result of its many uses. Here it has become important to discuss the future role of natural gas in global energy markets, and there are large quantities in Iraq. There is a great deal of discovered and undiscovered natural gas, and natural gas in Iraq is characterized by being easier to extract and less expensive, as the majority of it is extracted with crude oil. However, despite all these advantages, part of this wealth is burned and wasted largely, due to the underdevelopment of the infrastructure. The infrastructure needed to produce and invest natural gas, in addition to the weak security situation in Iraq, as well as American interference in Iraqi affairs, and therefore work must be done to develop the gas fields while providing job opportunities for workers and achieving a large financial return for the general budget

The African Sahel and Sahara region is a group of countries that are economically poor, structurally weak, and developmentally failed. The Sahel region suffers from wars, internal conflicts, and a multiplicity of ethnicities. It also suffers from a security vacuum that has led to the activity of terrorist organizations, organized crime, and other manifestations of security chaos. In addition to the European colonial ambitions of France and America, specifically China, the African Sahel and Sahara region is also a source of concern for regional and international security, and for security and military crises, because of the bases it contains for terrorism and illegal immigration, as well as lines of organized crime, smuggling, and trafficking. weapons, drug trafficking, cybercrime, money laundering, The Sahel and Sahara region, which extends over vast areas on the African continent, used to mean nothing but flashy headlines about ethnic and tribal tension and images of famine, until today it has turned into the turning point of international security policies after it has become a threat that crosses regional and international borders

The work of the official and informal institutions of any country in its foreign policy stems from a number of active variables at the internal and external levels, whether their results are negative or positive alike. They are a reflection of the country’s performance in foreign policy, and the capabilities of countries cannot be guided by an effective foreign policy. No matter how strong the country's political, economic, diplomatic and military capabilities are, since there are other players on the international scene, nothing can be passed without consensus.
In addition, the absence of a national interest officer and the lack of interest in building a unified foreign policy based on historical, geographical and economic factors and the nature of the country’s political system, fundamentally affects the performance of the Iraqi political decision-maker in unifying the political path from national policy towards the players in regional politics. Rather, it requires the cooperation of all Institutions and unifying visions through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and developing its work in harmony with the nature of the mission entrusted to it and the basis, which is guaranteed by the Iraqi Constitution and the regulations and laws in force, for the purpose of interaction to reach that policy in developing Iraq’s relationship with its regional environment, which has existed since its inception through historical stages until our present era.

Hong Kong 's hybrid political system، known as "one country، two systems،" emerged after the 1997 handover of power from the United Kingdom to China The system works to preserve Hong Kong' s autonomy while integrating it into authoritarian Chinese sovereignty، as the regime faces challenges related to representation. Democratic reforms، political reforms، interference in internal affairs، and weak autonomy for Hong Kong، as these issues contributed to complex social and political dynamics and major conflicts، most recently in 2019، which is called the (Umbrella Movement). Thus، this one country، two systems model has captured international attention، as the future of the hybrid system in Hong Kong is still ambiguous، as the study works to clarify the relationship between the democratic self- government system within the context of an authoritarian regime in China.