Journal of Historical studies

The research traces the image that was formed of the revelation sent down to the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him and his family) in European thought during the Middle Ages, focusing on how this image was formed in the minds of European thinkers and theologians since the Middle Ages, through a combination of myth and theology influenced by a preconceived position on Islam. Some Christian thinkers sought to deny the revelation of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him and his family), claiming that the Qur’an was composed by him, or inspired by his dreams, or that he received instructions from Christian monks.
The study highlights key figures who contributed to shaping this perception, who regarded the Qur’an as a human or mythical text and considered Islam a heresy. Their views were primarily rooted in theological polemics rather than informed scholarly understanding.
The research demonstrates that such perceptions lack academic and historical credibility. It shows clear evidence of the structural distinction between the Qur’an and the Prophet’s sayings (Hadith), the absence of direct parallels with previous scriptures, and the unique linguistic, legislative, and scientific miraculous nature of the Qur’an.

This study explores the life and contributions of Moses Maimonides, a prominent Jewish philosopher and physician who lived during the Ayyubid era in Egypt (567 AH - 600 AH / 1171 CE - 1204 CE). It offers a comprehensive analysis of his intellectual and medical achievements, highlighting their profound impact on the cultural and scientific life of Egypt and beyond during the medieval period.
Born in Al-Andalus, Maimonides grew up in a multicultural environment influenced by the Islamic world. He received an extensive education in philosophy and sciences, drawing inspiration from prominent Muslim philosophers like Ibn Rushd (Averroes), Avicenna, and Al-Farabi. This diverse background shaped his rational approach to interpreting Jewish law, blending Islamic and Jewish philosophies, and establishing himself as a reformist thinker committed to understanding religion through reason.
After relocating with his family to Egypt, Maimonides became a physician in the Ayyubid royal court. Renowned for his medical expertise, historians described him as "the unrivaled physician of his era." Beyond his medical practice, he contributed significantly to medical education and authored influential texts that remained references for centuries. These works integrated Islamic medical knowledge with Greek scientific thought, solidifying his status as a key figure in medical history.
The study emphasizes how Maimonides utilized Islamic philosophy to rejuvenate Jewish religious thought. His seminal work, The Guide for the Perplexed, provides a rational interpretation of religious texts, illustrating harmony between faith and reason. It also examines his views on religious and intellectual tolerance, despite some controversial opinions in his private writings shaped by the socio-political and religious tensions of his time.
Maimonides is portrayed as a cultural bridge between Judaism and Islam, with his works significantly influenced by Islamic heritage. This made his philosophy an enduring source of inspiration for both civilizations. He is also recognized as a symbol of cultural dialogue, promoting interfaith understanding during his era.
In conclusion, Moses Maimonides' intellectual and medical contributions profoundly influenced medieval philosophy and medicine. His efforts fostered cultural and intellectual exchanges between Islamic and Jewish traditions, cementing his legacy as one of history's most pivotal thinkers and scientists.

The efforts of many researchers in the field of Islamic history studies, especially with regard to the studies of the Islamic Orient, have contributed to enriching the Arab Islamic library with many books, literature and research, due to the historical importance of the Islamic Orient in the Islamic eras.
Among these contemporary researchers is prof. Dr. Saeed Nafisi (1895-1966), a well- known professor at the university of Tehran previously.
In this research, we will discuss the most prominent of the efforts, and then we will study one of his most important books, the (sources of Iranian Sufism) which means the phenomenon of Sufism in Persia in the Islamic eras, and in Islamic east.
The book is one of the most important books in Islamic mysticism, as well as in the study of religious beliefs in Persia and the Islamic east Certainly, the main role of Sufism and Arfan in Persia and Islamic times cannot be denied, and this book has recently been translated into Arabic, while most of the Nafisi's books were written on Persian, not translated into Arabic.
There are not enough details and information about the author's life in Arabic, so we made use of the websites to learn about the author's biography we divided this research into section, including:
1- The general study of Sufism in the Islamic East.
2- Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism and their impact on the Sufism of the Islamic East.
3- Sufi Practices in the Islamic East.
4- Orientalism and Sufism in the Islamic East.
5- The relationship of Sufism in the east with the Islamic word.
6- Sufi heritage in the Islamic East.

The human cognitive vessel included confronting concepts and assumptions that accompany and accompany the structural path of past, present and future events, and that these concepts and assumptions are characterized by a state of stability at times and change and transformation at other times according to the surrounding environmental circumstances and developments, and that the most mature and beneficial of these intellectual concepts is the concept of (confrontation rules), which has gone through stages of development and temporal succession since the beginning of creation and continues to be renewed to this day, with its diverse vocabulary and titles based on diagnosis and establishing foundations and rules, and the possibility of practical application or not, with a statement of the intellectual effects resulting from it. Since Imam Ali, peace be upon him, is considered one of the most prominent people who gave the rules of confrontation after the Noble Messenger, may God bless him and his family and grant them peace, a practical and applied example, whether in diagnosing its theoretical starting point and its practical and applied path, we decided to address the deterrent and containment dimension and the protest effect of the rules of confrontation adopted by him, peace be upon him, in his life path in an academic study to deconstruct the associative relationship between the current or future event and the rules that Imam Ali, peace be upon him, adopted as an approach to his dealings and treatments in the face of what he went through.

This study, entitled (Khasha' Al-Mu'adidi as a Source of Andalusian History), deals with the biography of Dr. Khasha' Al-Mu'adidi and his most important scientific contributions in the field of Islamic history. It also touched on researching Al-Mu'adidi's method in his book History of the Arab State in Andalusia, and the most important topics covered in this book. The study also showed the impact of political and ideological factors on the author's personality in forming the historical narrative of the book. The book, due to its importance, deserves study and research, and the researcher in Andalusian history cannot do without it.

Encyclopedic studies are among the most important scholarly endeavors that encapsulate human knowledge in the era in which they are compiled. With the development of Orientalist studies, the need arose for comprehensive references on the Qur’an and the creation of specialized encyclopedias dedicated to Qur’anic studies. The Qur’anic Encyclopedia, the focus of this research, is one of the most significant Western academic efforts to understand the Qur’an and the concepts and terms associated with it. Among these concepts is the issue of "the Prophetic Illiteracy" (الأمية النبوية), which the Qur’anic Encyclopedia critically analyzes. Therefore, this study aims to explore contemporary Orientalist perspectives on this Qur’anic term and compare them with the Islamic viewpoint, while tracing the origins of encyclopedic authorship up to the present day.
The Encyclopedia of the Quran is one of the most prominent Orientalist encyclopedias published in modern times, under the supervision of the Orientalist Jane Dammen McAuliffe, in collaboration with numerous Western scholars and Orientalists, and few Oriental scholars, It was published in five volumes between 2001 and 2006, with an additional index volume, by Brill, a Dutch publishing house. The Qur’anic Encyclopedia includes articles on various topics related to the Qur’an, such as history, language, exegesis, the people and places mentioned in it, and Qur’anic concepts and terms. The encyclopedia presents diverse perspectives on the issue of Prophetic Illiteracy, reflecting the multiplicity of Orientalist methodologies. While it offers valuable contributions to understanding the Qur’an from an academic perspective, it also reflects Western biases and methodologies that may differ from the Islamic viewpoint. As a result, the issue of Prophetic Illiteracy remains a contentious topic in Orientalist studies, calling for further research and dialogue between Islamic and Western understandings of this Qur’anic concept.

The research deals with the commercial and political relations between Basrah and Kuwait during the periods of modern history between 1775 and 1914. The subject is revived due to the strategic location of Al-Jafr of the two states. Basrah witnessed an important rolesin Commercial and navigational activity, and subject sheds Light on he general trad exchange and the relationship between Basrah and Kuwait. Studies Confirm that Kuwait stood agaihst the persian occupation during this period, preventing Kuwait from providing assistance to the ottoman Empir during its expansion in the Arabian peninsula, but the relationship did not continue due to the Kuwaiti rulers pursuit of independence from the ottoman states.

This research focuses on studying and analyzing the image of Lady Al-Zahra (peace be upon her) in one of the most important Sham writings, which is the book Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya by Ibn Kathir. This image appears dark and distorted due to Ibn Kathir's inability to free himself from his sectarian constraints. we find that in the articles of the research that were divided between the life of Al-Zahra during the time of her father (PBUH), whether in her position with him or his relationship with her, as well as her life with Imam Ali (PBUH), starting from her engagement and reaching the rest of the days, and finally her position towards Abu Bakr, whose features Ibn Kathir was keen to hide, which were characterized by boycott and anger towards him because of preventing her from her father's inheritance, but studying that seriously refutes everything that Ibn Kathir went to.

Israeli society is characterized by its class diversity, as it includes a group of national minorities, including the Arabs, who are considered the legitimate owners of the land, and who have transformed over time from a majority to a minority. The Arab minority in Israel has suffered from discrimination in various aspects of their lives within the framework of Israeli citizenship, as the Arabs occupied the lowest position in the country's class structure. Discrimination against them in Israel has become evident in many forms and at various levels, as they have faced neglect, violation of their rights, demolition of their homes, and displacement. In addition to the confiscation of their lands, the establishment of settlements, and the bringing in of Jewish, settlers with the aim of bringing about demographic change in favor of the Zionists.

This research studies the goals of rulers and their doctrinal aims from visions and dreams. Visions and dreams played a major role in creating many historical events. The rulers focused their attention on the subject of visions and dreams, as they are divine inspiration, which connects them to heaven, and their impact on the public, especially since there are Quranic verses and hadiths of the Messenger (may God bless him and his family and grant them peace) regarding them. The rulers resorted to investing them doctrinally in their politics, especially in the Umayyad and Abbasid eras. A portion of these goals were stemming from the person's faith in God and his goal is to please God and to be sincere in his intentions, because the second belief connects the believer with his Creator. As for the other part, it was exploited for transient worldly purposes.

The study aims to identify the personality of Alcuin (735-804 AD) and his role in the scientific renaissance in the Carolingian Empire. He was an English mathematician who wrote primary texts on arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Later, the Frankish Emperor Charlemagne sought his help, and he became the hero of the great cultural renaissance known as the Carolingian Renaissance in the ninth century, and the greatest Anglo-Saxon researcher. This, in turn, prepared the atmosphere for the twelfth-century renaissance known as the First Scientific Renaissance. The research was divided into an introduction, three axes, and a conclusion. The first axis included his birth and upbringing. The second axis dealt with his role in the scientific renaissance, while the third axis shed light on his scientific output in all aspects.

Religious tourism constitutes an important aspect of human activities related to the intellectual aspects that a person practices in order to satisfy spiritual and doctrinal desires that the individual adopts, and practices by traveling to visit places that he believes are sacred. Religious tourism to holy places is either seasonal or specific at known and fixed times, Or at times that are not specific to a known time and are according to the individual’s desire and the need that prompts him to visit those places. The popularity of religious tourism, its spread, and the large number of its visitors depend on several reasons, including religious ones related to religious motives, sectarian motives, and intellectual loyalties. In addition to other factors and incentives that contribute significantly to the prosperity of religious tourism and encourage people to turn to it and practice it by providing most of the necessary needs that tourists need for the holy places, starting with the roads leading to those places and the necessity of providing the traveler with the comforts he needs and the food that satisfies his needs. Water, rest and guidance stations, and providing safety on those roads.
In addition to caring for and paying attention to the holy places by paying attention to their construction, reconstruction, and maintaining their maintenance and beautification in order to keep pace with the requirements of development in the arts of architecture and to accommodate large and increasing numbers of visitors, and this is what was adopted by the individuals and governments that succeeded in administering the Arab Islamic state.

The Israeli decision to annex the Jolan Heights to its territory at the end of 1981 was considered an important event in the Arab-Israeli conflict, as it represented another seizure of Arab land, in addition to its strategic importance from a military perspective and its richness in water resources. It had many repercussions on the regional and international levels, with Arab and international rejection and turning a blind eye from some parties to the Israeli action, especially by the United States of America, as well as its effects on the residents of the Golan Heights and their position on this decision.

This research deals with the administrative conditions in the Sanjak of Basra between the years 1908-1921. This topic gained importance from the Ottoman administrative system, even if it did not achieve the goal for which it was set, namely, to save the ruling system from imminent collapse, due to the failure to implement this system on the one hand and the failure to address the minuses of the apparatus. Administrative, on the other hand, is in itself a positive development at the level of the Ottoman administration. After the coup of the constitutional regime in 1908. For the first time in the history of this Department, legal foundations and norms were laid that were borrowed from developed European countries. Accordingly, these regimes became the institutions of Ottoman rule more clearly defined in Iraq in general and Basra in particular. When the Ottoman troops withdrew from Basra and were occupied by the British, the occupying British authorities had to create an administrative system designed to fill the political and administrative vacuum and regulate the relationship with the population during the seven years of the British occupation rule from 1914_1921 the main governing foundations of the Iraqi government were laid , as Basra served as an experimental field in the theoretical and practical areas of British policy in administrative aspects, which extended throughout Iraq since the mandate took its actual practical approach in 1921.

IbnTumartis considered one of the most prominent figures in Islamic history, particularly during the rise of the Almohad state. He played a significant role in shaping the political and religious thought of his time, founding a religious movement based on the principle of pure monotheism and fighting what he perceived as deviations from true Islam. IbnTumartis known for his strict approach and his takfiri rhetoric against those who opposed him, which has made him a controversial and intriguing figure in historical and intellectual studies. In this research، we will explore the biography of IbnTumart, delve into his intellectual and religious methodology، and focus on his takfiri discourse and its impact on Islamic and political movements during and after his time.