journal of arapkha for historical , archaeological and anthropological studies

Arrapḫa (modern Kirkuk) emerged as a significant center during the first half of the eighteenth century BCE, at a time when the Amorite ruler Samsī-Addu (Šamšī-Adad) had seized control of Ekallātum and nearby Aššur, initiating an expansionist phase that quickly culminated in the formation of a kingdom encompassing most of northern Mesopotamia. His principal adversaries were the chiefs of the Turukkû tribes spread throughout the mountains of Kurdistan, especially to the north of Arrapḫa; consequently, he occupied Arrapḫa to use it as a base for his campaigns.
Arrapḫa also enjoyed a particular religious importance, and its temple received special attention from Samsī-Addu and his son Išmi-Dagan, because it was a temple dedicated to the god Adad (Addu, in the Amorite tradition). They had not known the god Aššur until after their family had abandoned their Amorite homeland in the Euphrates valley and settled approximately the city of Aššur.
The Mari archives do not report any military operations in Arrapḫa; rather, they emphasize references to messengers from Arrapḫa who traveled to Babylon, Mari, and the kingdoms of inland Syria, even reaching Ḫaṣurā (Tell el-Qaḍah, northeast of Ṣafed in Palestine) in the far west. The texts also underscore the importance of its geographical position, which allowed safe passage from the Mari region and Mount Sinjār into the interior of Babylonia in the east and south, avoiding the desert steppe of the Jazīra

The subject of Turkish-Algerian relations under the PJD is of great importance given the political transformations that Turkey has undergone and the research may be one of two sections dealing with the first (Turkey and Algeria) a historical look in which the Ottoman era and the French colonial period were referred to
The second section examined and analysed the factors linking the two countries in today\'s time: the political, economic, cultural, social, security and strategic factors, and finally the prospect of the future of Turkish-Algerian relations.

The Aramaic language remained active in use throughout Iraq, including the city of Karbala, until the era of the Arab-Islamic conquests. That is, at the end of the seventh century AD, weakness and decline began to creep in as a result of their contact and interaction with Arabs and the large number of Arabs. Thus, the Arabic language dominated it in the tenth century AD. However, the Aramaic language remained a language limited to religious aspects and was used in churches for prayers, and their religious scholars began to explain the Holy Bible to people in Arabic to a degree. Arabization in the Levant and Iraq differed from one place to another and from one human group to another. The plain areas were Arabized very quickly, faster than the mountainous areas were Arabized. It is worth mentioning here that the Muslim Arabs, during the Arab-Islamic conquests, spread the word Nabataeans. Iraq was inhabited by the remnants of the Nabateans, who spoke Aramaic to refer to the peasants. The Arabs did not harm or harm them during the conquest phase or after it, but rather they were left to their work in irrigation and agriculture, and this is a very important issue because they spoke Aramaic, which is closely related to the Arabic language, is unanimously agreed upon by researchers who specialize in the Arabic language, and Islam has spread widely among them

This study deals with the economic structure of temples in Yemen before Islam , which represents the foundations of its economic structure. Temples were important in the economic entity of the ancient Yemeni kingdoms due to their possession of great material capabilities that enabled them to maintain their religious vitality and parallel the economic strength of the state and clearly influence Yemeni society. Through this study, we note that temples were the owner or a basic partner in every economic resource and sought to develop this resource and achieve the greatest amount of material benefit.

Europe witnessed a marked escalation of nationalist tensions after the end of World War I, with the emergence of Czechoslovakia as an independent state in 1918. One of the most prominent issues reflecting this tension was the Sudeten German question in Czechoslovakia. The Sudetenland, inhabited by a German majority, was incorporated into the newly formed Czechoslovak state after World War I under the terms of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. This arrangement provoked resentment among the German population, who found themselves within a new entity to which they did not belong nationally. This led to a growing sense of discrimination and demands for national rights and autonomy. The demands of the Sudeten Germans received little attention from the European powers after World War I, as the major powers were preoccupied with establishing the new international order and avoiding any nationalist conflicts that might threaten the continent\'s stability. However, the rise of the Nazi regime in Germany in 1933 gradually changed the European stance, as Germany adopted a discourse of defending German minorities outside its borders and began supporting their political movements, led by Konrad Henlein. In this context, Nazi Germany exploited the Sudetenland\'s national grievance as a pretext to interfere in Czechoslovakia\'s affairs and expand its influence in Central Europe. The crisis reached its peak in 1938 when Germany formally demanded the annexation of the Sudetenland to the German Reich. In an attempt to avoid a full-scale war, Britain and France opted for a policy of appeasement and led negotiations that led to the signing of the Munich Agreement in September 1938, which stipulated the ceding of the territory by Czechoslovakia to Germany. This agreement represented a dangerous turning point in European politics, as it revealed the weakness of the international system and the willingness of the major powers to sacrifice small states in exchange for peace.

This research addresses an important phase of the conflict over Toledo, between the Almoravid State and the Kingdom of Castile during the period (500-542 AH / 1106-1157 AD). The Almoravids continued their attempts to recapture Toledo, given its stature, importance, and geographical location. It was the heart of Andalusia and the base of the central border. The Christians also used it as a base for assembling their armies, invading Andalusian cities, and threatening the Arab-Islamic presence in Andalusia. The importance of this study lies in its use of sources from both sides of the conflict, comparing them, and then analyzing them.

The research explores American Orientalism and Andalusian studies through the work of the orientalist Remie Levy-Columbus in her book Trade and Merchants in al-Andalus. It shows how she focused on studying the economic life of al-Andalus, especially the role of merchants and their activities in society, relying on both Arabic and foreign sources. The study also highlights her orientalist approach in analyzing Andalusian history from an economic perspective, reflecting American Orientalism’s interest in social and economic aspects alongside political and religious ones.

The study of Andalusian history is considered one of the highly significant topics in Islamic history. The history of Muslims in Al-Andalus witnessed a remarkable renaissance, with many governors and commanders emerging who bore the responsibility of raising the banner of Islam, particularly beyond the Pyrenees. This research, entitled “Military Activity of the Governors of Al-Andalus in the South of the Franks (95–138 AH / 711–755 CE)”, falls within the field of historical studies that aim to shed light on the efforts of those leaders who took it upon themselves to spread Islam in various parts of the world. This topic requires thorough investigation and detailed examination of sources and references related to the history of Al-Andalus during this period, in order to assess its impact positively on both the Islamic and European worlds.The study consists of an introduction and two main sections. The first section addresses the initial phase of military activity, including the Arab penetration into France, the conquests under Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani, the governance of Septimania under Islamic rule, and the conquests during the era of Anbasa ibn Suhaym al-Kalbi. The second section covers the second phase of military activity, detailing the conquests under Abd al-Rahman al-Ghafiqi, the events of the Battle of Poitiers (Battle of the Martyrs), its repercussions, and the movement of conquests after Poitiers under ‘Uqba ibn al-Hajjaj al-Saluli. The study concludes with a summary highlighting the main findings, accompanied by a list of sources and references.

The Prophet's biography occupies great importance in Islamic history, as it is the foundation upon which that history was built, and the beginning that illuminated the path for other eras. The biography has specific sources from which it is drawn and taken, including the books of the Prophet's hadith, which represent an important mine of its topics. What the Prophet said, did, and approved is partly included in the Prophet's biography. Therefore, the selection of the Sahih al-Bukhari as the basis for this research of this kind was the selection of the concise and comprehensive Sahih of al-Bukhari. The plant nature in the Hijaz represents the field of the Prophet’s biography and its wide stage, a basic element of its geographical and economic composition. Medina is mentioned in particular as the settlement of the Prophet, may God bless him and grant him peace, and his companions, may God be pleased with them. There was a diversity of plants that exceeded dozens of plant species, which represented great importance in the daily life of Muslims and others in those areas, as they entered into their food, drink, work, construction, livelihood, and cooking... etc. What strengthens this importance is that the plant factor is not widely spread in the Hijaz due to the prevalence of desert climates in the pilgrims and the Arabian Peninsula in general. Hence, studying it and working to know its types on the tongue of the Prophet, may God bless him and grant him peace, was an important matter and necessary documentation.

The importance of this topic stems from the fact that poetry was regarded as the primary means of expression among the Arabs before Islam. Through it, we can understand the social, political, and cultural life of that era. The poet was not merely a talented individual but rather the voice of his tribe, its spokesman, and its historical record, which makes him a cornerstone in comprehending pre-Islamic civilization and its traditions. The significance of this subject also lies in the fact that pre-Islamic poetry constitutes one of the most prominent sources of authentic Arab heritage and a vital reference for studying the history of the Arabs before Islam. It clearly reveals the poet’s role in society and the respect and influence he enjoyed. Moreover, studying this subject helps us understand the later development of Arabic poetry in the Islamic era and shows how it transitioned from a tribal instrument to a means of preaching and reform . Poetry among the pre-Islamic Arabs was closely tied to daily life; it documented their heroism, genealogies, and battles, and was transmitted orally and preserved by reciters. The poet served as the official spokesman of the tribe, its defender through words, the one who immortalized its triumphs, and the one who exposed its enemies. A tribe took pride in having an eloquent poet to represent it. Poets often received gifts from kings and tribal leaders in return for their panegyrics—such as money, gold, camels, horses, political or military protection, and sometimes even honorary titles or positions. Due to their eloquence and persuasive power, some poets were entrusted with diplomatic missions on behalf of rulers and chiefs.

This research examines the nature of the French mandate system over Syria and Lebanon between 1920 and 1946. This mandate constituted one of the colonial formulas aimed at achieving political gains Political, economic, cultural and security, through fragmenting the region and establishing many economic projects and financial monopolies, in addition to finding a legal and constitutional formula that facilitates French control, this led to the emergence of a movement among the local political, social, and cultural elites who led the national resistance in various forms, ranging from armed struggle, which manifested itself in revolutions that encompassed the entire country, to parliamentary political struggle. Through this struggle, the effective role of the local elites emerged, continuing until independence was achieved in 1946.

The Justice and Development Party was founded in 2001 and came to power in 2002. During that period, Turkey witnessed severe political and economic turmoil, as it faced the "woman issue," a legacy from earlier eras. The problems related to women, both globally and domestically, manifest in a spiral of issues concerning education, employment, health, violence, weak participation in decision-making mechanisms, human rights, and gender inequality. In this context, issues such as the legal status of women, political participation, violence against them, practices of local governments toward them, human rights, and the Justice and Development Party's founding principles, values, and necessary measures regarding these matters take shape.

Historical studies of the Arabs before Islam have held great significance for historians, due to the nation's rich history and civilizational achievements that placed it among the prominent nations. The pre-Islamic Arab era witnessed the presence of metaphysical beliefs that people of that time adhered to and relied upon in important aspects of their lives. These wise individuals held a special status in society during both times of war and peace, often having the final say in many critical matters.
The knowledge of the unseen (al-ghayb) remained a central concern for people throughout the ages. To that end, they developed many methods—some aimed at uncovering the unseen, while others served political or social ambitions or helped address certain challenges. Because of this, people gathered around such figures, many of whom were leaders, rulers, and tribal elders, owing to their strong and influential personalities.
From this emerges the importance of the topic: "Metaphysical Concepts Among Pre-Islamic Arabs." This study explores various types of metaphysical beliefs such as soothsaying, divination, physiognomy, and augury, followed by a discussion on arbitration, wise men and women, and their roles in Arab society at the time. The research concludes with a summary highlighting the most important findings reached in the study.

Dreams played a major role in Byzantine society because of their influence on the conditions of Byzantine society, especially since they were what showed the near future, good and bad, such as illness or well-being. They were not limited to the ruling authority, but were seen by the public and the clergy in different parts of the Byzantine lands, and on this basis. Special interpreters of dreams appeared, some of whom accompanied the emperors even in their private battles.