Iraqi National Journal of Earth Science

The anomalous case of Gara Baran which is a part of a very long Baikher Anticline, is carried out using high-resolution structural analyses such as Fold Geometry, Harmonic (Fourier) analysis, Vertical Investigation of fold style, and Formation Thickness analysis. The Geometrical analysis of three traverses reveals that it is an asymmetrical anticline with average dips of the northeastern and southwestern limb (26o) and (22o) respectively and verging towards the northeast. The Fourier analysis exposes that the shape of the northeastern limb is more developed than the southwestern one. Moreover, the shape of the northeastern limb becomes less developed towards the northwest, whereas the shape of the southwestern limb becomes developed in the same direction. The Vertical Investigations analysis shows that the fold is asymmetrical and verging towards the northeast from Cretaceous to Middle Eocene, except the folding of Pila Spi Fm. which is verging towards the southwest. The fold axis and axial plane are rotated anticlockwise from the Cretaceous to the Paleogene. The dips of bedding planes are reduced towards the younger formation where the interlimb angle increases in the same direction. Formations thickness study shows that Gara Baran is influenced by negative tectonics inversion; which suffered reverse displacement during the Cretaceous to Early Eocene followed by a normal movement during the Middle to the Late Eocene due to the effect of suture listric fault. Fourier and Geometric analyses confirm that the listric fault reduces its effect towards the northwest, so this inversion can be called Oblique Negative Inversion tectonics.

The area (1558,3) km2 in AL- Sharakat district had been studied. The importance of this subject was fulfilled through the (pools / rain basins) in the area of the study which is considered seasonal valleys in Al- sharkat area. The water flows during the Winter and Spring during the fall of rain which is always heavy at irregular times in quantity and time. I have used both (cn-scs) and the pattern (Snyder) in the study of Hydrology features of the environments of water basins (pool) of the area of Al- sharkat in Saladdin province. I have made a comparison of the results of both ways to know if the application of these ways are suitable for the nature of the study area. the results have shown that the value of (cn-scs) that the fall of water may happen with the possibility of pointing the limit of the suitable place for exploiting the water of floods coming to Sharkat that can be useful in different fields while the pattern (TP) shows that whenever the value of (ct) the time of pools (basins) response to gain the top of flowing in the little steep. moreover, coefficients moving towards (0) and less than medium which is (254). this shows that water basin is weak in keeping water on the surface in flowing. Therefore, the quantity of flowing and increasing danges on the water basins in Al-Sharkat district.

The permeability is considered one of the most significant rock properties used in evaluating hydrocarbon reservoirs because this property controls the directional movement and flow rate of the reservoir’s fluids. The permeability prediction of the carbonate reservoirs is a difficult task due to the heterogeneity of this type of reservoir rock. The study aims to determine the permeability of the Mishrif Formation, which represents the main carbonate reservoir in the Buzurgan oilfield using the integration between well log interpretation and regression analysis technique. Some well logs and core information of six wells in the Buzurgan oilfield have been used in this study, and the logging data for these wells are analyzed and interpreted using Techlog software and Exel Software. In addition, a 3D model of permeability is built using the Petrel Software. The results show that the Mishrif Formation is heterogeneous regarding the permeability, where it changes laterally and vertically. The average horizontal permeability of the Mishrif Formation ranges between (0.3-15 md), whereas the vertical permeability ranges between (0.4-16 md). The study reveals that MB21 and MC2 units represent the best reservoir of the Mishrif Formation, where these units are characterized by good permeability compared to the other stratigraphic units.

The present study deals with the microfacies analysis and the sedimentary environment of the Bekhme Formation (Late Campanian-Early Maastrichtian) in two sections, the first (Badi section) in the Duhok city and the second (Khoran section) in the Shaqlawa city. The lithology of the formation and the microfacies of each section were studied and described, and the sedimentary environment of the formation was deduced by relying on microfacies analysis of each sections, as three main microfacies ( lime mudstone , lime wackestone , lime packstone microfacies) were diagnosed divided into (12) submicrofacies, and it was found that the sedimentary environment of the formation at Badi section was represented by the upper bathyal to the middle bathyal, while the microfacies diagnosed in the formation at Khoran section reflected the middle shelf to outer shelf environments. The reason for the difference in the sedimentary environment is due to the nature of the sedimentary basin for each section and the tectonic factors in that period, which formed normal faults in the (Back- Bulge) basin, as the Badi section is located within the (Deep Back- Bulge) area, while the Khoran section is close to the shallow Back- Bulge area less deep.

Landform classification is the process of identifying and grouping different types of landforms based on their physical characteristics. This study investigated the use of Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) to classify landforms in Kirkuk City, Iraq. The study used two different DEMs: the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM), the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) Global DEM (GDEM). It used three different landform classification models: the Topographic Position Index (TPI), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Convolutional Neural Network (CNN). The results of this study showed that the CNN model was the most effective at classifying landforms. The CNN model achieved an overall accuracy (OA) of 88.91% and a kappa of 0.883. The SVM model was the second most effective model, with an OA of 79.81% and a kappa coefficient of 0.781. The TPI model was the least effective model, with an OA of 67.12% and a kappa of 0.658. The field verification results showed that the CNN model was also the most accurate in terms of field mapping. The results of this study suggest that the CNN model is a promising tool for landform classification.

The quality of the water used for irrigation depends on the total amount of dissolved salts, their species soil properties, and crop type. One hundred thirty-nine samples were taken from wells in the east regions of Nineveh Governorate to analyze their physical and chemical properties. Wells water was assessed for irrigation purposes based on the following guides; (SAR), (BSRC), (SSP%), (PI), and (KR). The results showed that the suitability of water for irrigation use that nearly (97%) of samples was excellent based on (SAR) and (BSRC) guides. While the suitability of wells water was (47%) based on (SSP%) guide. Also, the results show that (68%) of wells have good permeability for the PI index and (96%) are suitable by (KR) guide for irrigation. According to the hydrochemical investigation, modified quality facies (R3) have been suggested where (Ca-SO4) is the dominant species This guide was developed based on sulphate as one of the important irrigation criteria in the study area. The results of the application of this index show that (11%) are excellent, (26%) good, (45%) are suitable, (15%) doubtful, and (3%) are unsuitable.

This study is concerned with a thick succession of polymictic conglomerates which is exposed in the Chwarta, Mawat and Qandil areas inside the Imbricated and Thrust Zone. It is about 1500 m thick and comprises pebbles of boulders of chert, limestone and metamorphic rocks which was previously considered as unit three of the Red Bed Series of the Eocene age. This unit is located inside the trough of a deformed syncline (Chwarta-Mawat syncline) and the youngest succession in the area. The limestone boulders and gravels contain Nummulite and Alveolina of Middle Eocene which belong to the Naopurdan Formation. The limestone clasts of this conglomerate and those of the Upper Bakhtiari Formation (in the Chamchamal area) are compared with those outcrops of the Naopurdan Formation in the Thrust Zone. This comparison is achieved in the field and by thin sections under stereoscopic and polarized microscope showing the same degree of lithification, the content of fossils, fractures and faults in the three units. Therefore, depending on these features, and stratigraphic position, the present study concludes that the Upper Bakhtiari Formation occurs in the Chwarta, Mawat and Qandil areas. The fossil-bearing limestone clasts are derived from erosion of the outcrop of the Naopurdan Formation in the Thrust Zone in the north of Mawat and Chawrta towns. There is agreement that this formation was uplifted (with many older formations) in the Late Miocene- Pliocene and its erosion supplied fossiliferous limestone boulders and gravels to the basin of Upper Bakhtiari in the Thurst, Imbricate, High and Low Folded Zones. This study is the first study to prove (with evidence) the presence of the Upper Bakhtiari Formation inside the Imbricated and Thrust Zone in the Mawat-Chawrta and Qandil area in addtion to its outcrops of the formation in the Low Folded Zone.

Received: 16- Sep -2023
Revised: 02- Dec -2023
Accepted: 22- Feb -2024
Available online: 01- Jan – 2025 Accurate land use and land cover (LU/LC) classification is essential for various geospatial applications, which demand high spatial and spectral resolution imagery. This study investigates the efficacy of pan-sharpening and hybrid data fusion techniques to enhance Landsat 9 and Sentinel 2A imagery for LU/LC classification. The study aims to compare the classification accuracy of different datasets using multiple classifiers: Support Vector Machines (SVM) with various kernels, Maximum Likelihood (ML), Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), Mahalanobis distance, and Minimum Distance. Datasets encompassed the Landsat (30 m) imagery, Landsat pan-sharpened to (15 m) and (10 m), Sentinel 2 pan-sharpened to (10 m), and the hybrid datasets that combined the un-overlapping bands from both satellites at (10 m). The results show a significant improvement in classification accuracy: from 82.28% for Landsat 30m to 89.91% for Landsat 10m and 91.55% for the hybrid dataset using the linear SVM. The hybrid dataset outperformed the individual Landsat and Sentinel 2 pan-sharpened imagery, especially for spectrally overlapped features, demonstrating the value of fusing the information from multiple sensors. SVM classifier with the linear kernel are emerged as the most accurate and robust classifier. This study concludes that pan-sharpening and hybrid data fusion effectively enhance LU/LC classification accuracy. The SVM classifier with the linear kernel is identified as a suitable choice for this task, offering insights valuable for applications in diverse fields.

The study has been carried out to mapping the risk of soil erosion in the Gebel watershed (Duhok Governorate, Kurdistan Region, Iraq) using the RUSLE model. All RUSLE factors (R, K, LS, C, and P) are computed as a raster’s maps and used to calculate soil loss in ArcGIS software. The (R) factor map is computed from rainfall data and has a value ranging between (82.5 – 178) MJ mm ha−1 h−1 year−1. Where the (K) factor is estimated from soil sampling, it has values ranging between (0.011 – 0.023) t h MJ-1 mm-1. However, the (LS) factor values range between (0 – 1520). Based on NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index), a satellite image (LANDSAT 8) is employed to map the (C) factor, which has values ranging from 0.389 to 0.446. The average annual soil loss the in-study area is 1.52 (ton/ha/year) which ranges from 0 to 1310 tons/ha/year. According to FAO and UNEP. (1984), soil erosion is classified into seven classes, and 76.17% of the total area has very slight soil erosion, and 19.45% of the watershed area has slight soil erosion, while the moderate soil loss rate is covers 3.19% of the total area. Finally, the other classes (High, Very High, Extremely, and Extremely High) represent 1.22% of the total area but have a large amount of soil loss (12708.87) ton per year. The results clearly show that most significant factor affecting soil loss (A) is LS factor, which has a very high significant correlation with soil loss (R2=1)

Fourteen samples are selected from surface, ground and springs waters around the city of Qayarah, northern Iraq. Analyses of major components: Ca+2, Mg+2, Na+, K+, Cl-, SO4-2, NO3- and HCO3-, as well as measuring the following properties: pH, TDS and EC are carried out. The mean results for Tigris River samples are (58.2, 16.62, 16.07, 2.15, 16.35, 69.7, 2.75, 137.5,) mg/l respectively. The values of pH, EC and TDS are 8.2, 443.25 µS/cm, and 281.75 mg/l respectively. The average results of both groundwater and sulfur spring analyses are (588.9, 269.1, 1056.3, 7.1, 1281.3, 2843.0, 14.3, 189.1 mg/l) respectively. The values of pH, EC and TDS are (8.2, 7515 µS/cm, and 6491.0 mg/l) respectively. The Piper classification of water reveals that the studied Tigris River samples belong to facies (B), wells [GR5, GR7] belong to (C) facies, wells [GR1, GR2, GR4, GR6, GR3, GR8] belong to the facies (E), well [GR9] and the sulfur spring [SW5] belong to (G) facies. The Water Quality Index (WQI) of the samples show: Tigris River samples are excellent for suitability for drinking, with a rate of (20.81-22.19), sample [GR9] is poor with a value (69.03), samples [GR6, GR7] are of very poor quality with values (95.75) and (85.72) respectively, the samples [GR1, GR2, GR3, GR4, GR5, GR8, SW5] are unsuitable with range values (111.62-341.57). Pollution with heavy elements (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn) show low HPI rate (1.18-3.65). The carcinogenic risk calculations show that all samples are under risk; except for (GR3) sample had a significant carcinogenic risk. Non-carcinogenic health risk quotient is under risk. The carcinogenic by ingestion and dermal exposure for adults more than for children, while the non-carcinogenic risk by ingestion and dermal exposure for children is more than for adults.

In This research, the effect of diagenesis processes has been examined on the Kometan Formation, a fractured carbonate petroleum reservoir in the northern Iraq, that dates from the Upper Cretaceous period., and is located within the tectonostratigraphic megasequence known as AP9 on the Arabian plate. The main objectives of this study involve examining the impact of different diagenetic processes on the Kometan Formation. This investigation is based on the analysis of twenty thin sections by using a polarized microscope, all collected from a specific region on the southwestern side of the Azmir anticline, located in the northeastern vicinity of Sulaymaniyah City. This study identifies several diagenetic processes that have influenced the Kometan Formation, including micritization, dissolution, cementation, neomorphism, silicification, compaction, fracturing, and pyritization. These processes have taken place across three diagenetic environments: marine phreatic, meteoric, and burial. Diagenetic processes of Kometan Formation are particularly prominent in burial and common in meteoric setting, and relatively rare within the marine phreatic conditions. These processes are classified into three distinct diagenetic stages: early (eogenesis), middle (mesogenesis), and late (telogenesis).

The present study included the study of the microfacies and the depositional environment of the Kometan Formation within the sequences of the (Turonian- lower Campanian) cycle in three subsurface sections within a dome of Kithki represented by the first section (BH-52) with a thickness of (151) m, while the second is represented by a section (BH-81) with a thickness of (188) and the third (BH-96) and a thickness of (144) m. The rocks of the formation under study consist mainly of overlapping layers of hard gray limestone, hard dolomitized limestone, shally limestone and marly limestone of medium hardness in the lower and upper units and of a lamination grey limestone of medium hardness in the middle unit, and the study showed that the sequences of this cycle are conformity with lower Gulneri Formation and upper contact with Mushorah Formation. The petrographic study of the formation rocks showed the diagnosis of three main microfacies and five secondary submicrofacies which the formation environment was deduced from the Toe of slope to the deep basin sea.

Chamchamal sub-basin is located in the northeastern part of Iraq, within the Sulaimani governorate. The study area covers about (285) Km2. Most of the study area is an elevated area, ranging between (511-1216) m above sea level. Fatha, Injana, Mukdadiya, Bai Hassan, and Quaternary deposits are the main geological units in the Chamchamal sub-basin. The current study intends to investigate groundwater storage and estimate the hydraulic characteristics of the primary aquifers within the study area. A pumping test was conducted in five wells distributed to cover the study area. The saturation thickness of the studied aquifers ranges from (7 to 64) m. The hydraulic conductivity values varied from (0.0326-16.890) m/day, while the transmissivity value ranged between (0.3-337.8) m2/day. The storage coefficient values were ranged between (0.001-0.1272). The aquifer types are semi-confined, semi-unconfined, and unconfined based on the results of the hydraulic characteristics (T, K, Sc), and the study area has been classified as heterogeneous and anisotropy. The flow net map was generated by monitoring groundwater depths from 50 wells within the study area. The water table depths range from (8 to 140) m below the ground surface. The groundwater flow map for the study area indicates that the water moves from the northwest and northeast of the sub-basin to the south basin similar to the relief of the study area, then drains for the Shiwasoor stream. Chamchamal sub-basin is one of the secondary hydrogeological basins of the Al- Adhaim Basin, which is one of the main tributaries of the Tigris River.

The petrography and diagenetic processes of the lower Jurassic Sarki Formation as one of the main Jurassic formations in Iraq, are studied in two selected sections in Warte and Zarwan, in the Imbricated Zone, Kurdistan Region, northeastern Iraq. The lithology of the Sarki Formation comprises dolomitic limestone and dolomite, thick-bedded brecciated dolomitic limestone, brecciated dolomite and very thin bedded marl. Mineralogical study using X-ray diffraction analysis has revealed that the main minerals include dolomite, calcite, quartz and illite. The petrographic investigation reveals the presence of few allochems mostly affected by different diagenetic processes especially dolomitization. The skeletal grains include ostracods, bivalves and echinoderms. Ooids, peloids and intraclasts are the main non-skeletal grains. The Sarki Formation has been subjected to different types of diagenesis processes, which are dolomitization, micritization, compaction (physical and chemical), cementation, dissolution, pyritization and fracturing. The diagenetic processes of the Sarki Formation relate to four diagenetic environments including marine, meteoric, burial and uplifting.

The current study includes conducting two-dimensional azimuthal electrical resistivity survey in order to obtain some subsurface electrical characteristics of the Quaternary deposits especially the directional asymmetry in resistivity values, which may reflect the direction of the fractures in these deposits. The survey includes two sites within the campus of the University of Mosul; the first site is located next to the university stadium at longitude and latitude (36º38`16", 43°13`86") respectively, and the second site is in the presidential palaces area near the waste dump at longitude and latitude (36º38`85", 43°14`41") respectively. A two-dimensional resistivity survey is used with an angle interval of 20º from the center of spread and in all directions. The survey includes the application of the Mutib and Al-Fadhel azimuthal system for radial, forward and backward surveys to measure apparent resistivity values and representing the data through drawings in cartesian and polar graphs, analyzing the results using the two-dimensional resistivity data interpretation program (RES2DINV). The current study shows good results in applying the Mutib and Al-Fadhel azimuthal system by the comparison between the three radials, forward and backward surveys. Many major and secondary tensile and shear fractures appeared in different directions within the sediments of Quaternary at the sites of the current study, which indicate the possibility of continuing tectonic activity to the present time and its impact on recent deposits and the geotectonical importance for these results.

This study deals with the spatial distribution of hydrogeological and hydraulic characteristics of the groundwater in Khanaqin sub-basin. The study area is located between (45.00- 45.69) east (34.00 - 34.95) north. The raw data are taken from the hydrogeological technical report of the General Groundwater Authority. The study shows that the depths to groundwater vary as a result of the topographic variation and the lithological characteristics of the aquifer. Consequently, the depths range from (4 to 40) m. The groundwater levels vary between (45 and 564) m. The study shows that the groundwater flow trends are generally northeast to southwest on both banks of the Diyala River, which recharged from groundwater based on data from equipotential lines. The difference in depths and levels is reflected in the other hydraulic properties, as the values of transmissivity (T) range (from 40 to 549) m2/day, and hydraulic conductivity (K) that also affected by the variation of the lithology and groundwater aquifer thickness from one place to another; they are elevated in northeast to southwest in the form of a strip parallel to Diyala River and range (from 1 to 25) m/day, and the pumping rate is also different, as its values range (between 59.27 to 4492) m3/day. Therefore, the variation in the drawdown may be due to natural characteristics resulting from the lithology of the groundwater aquifers or due to the neglecting of the basic criteria in determining the suitable pumping equipment, as the values of the drawdown are (between 0.11 and 61) m.

This research deals with the engineering and geochemical features of Shatt Al-Hilla banks' soil. Six samples are collected to study the chemical properties of the banks’ soil such as pH, Gypsum, EC, SO3, and heavy metals. As well as physical and engineering properties of PI, LL, MC, dry and saturated density, and trace elements in the soil of the Shatt Al-Hilla banks provide a clear view of the geotechnical properties of the Shatt Al-Hilla banks. According to the study's findings, the LL percentage ranges from 20.0 to 18.7% with an average of 19.46%. All of the soil samples are classified as having poor plasticity. The PI percentage ranges from 21.0 to 16.0 with an average of 18.88% indicating that the banks’ soils in Shatt Al-Hilla are classified as having low plasticity throughout the research region. The banks’ soils in the research region are characterized as having low swelling capability in all stations along the Shatt Al-Hilla Banks. The values of dry density range from 1.684 g/cm3 to 1.433 g/cm3 with an average of 1.522 g/cm3, and the EC ranges from 0.75 to 1.13 with an average of 0.97 indicating that the soil of Shatt Al-Hilla banks has very low salinity. The pH ranges from 8.6 to 9 with an average of 8.76, the gypsum ranges from 1.92 to 1.09% with an average of 1.36%, and the sulfate percentages vary from 3.75 to 0.99% with an average of 2.25%.

Wadi Al-Qasab basin is considered one of the seasonal largest basins located in the eastern part of Nineveh Governorate. However, the region suffers from water scarcity in summer and abundance in winter. This study aims to determine the storage capacity resulting from the construction of a hypothetical dam at the bottom of the basin after analyzing the morphological and hydrological characteristics of the basin during 2018 using a GIS program. The Watershed Modeling System WMS program is used to calculate the curve number CN and annual surface runoff by introducing data for three parameters (soil moisture, ground cover, and hydrogeological characteristics). The surface runoff volume is estimated using a GIS program based on the runoff depth and basin surface area. Based on these findings, there are several possible scenarios for constructing a hypothetical dam at the bottom of the basin. The first proposed dam, with a length of 60 m, can hold water for 183 500 m3, whereas the second proposed dam, with a length of 285 m, will hold water for 144 2258 m3. In the last one, a dam spanning 530 m can store 5492700 m3 of water. After studying the morphological characteristics of the basin, it is found that it has a high CN, giving preference of water storage over infiltration. The largest third proposed dam can be chosen due to its high storage capacity, which gives the longest storage period for rainwater.

Determining petrophysical properties remains a paramount concern for oil companies, encompassing crucial properties such as porosity, permeability, and water saturation. Constructing accurate models requires an in-depth understanding of sedimentary facies within reservoirs. Despite the challenge posed by the absence of core samples, this study integrates fifteen well logs, borehole data, and seismic maps of the Late Turonian-Early Coniacian Khasib Formation from Nasiriya Oilfield, south of Iraq. The Khasib Formation is grouped into electrofacies by the integration of cluster analysis technique provided by Geology software using well logs and the borehole data. Electrofacies models are constrained using Petrel software. The porosity and water saturation models were built based on the electrofacies models. The property modeling including electrofacies, effective porosity and water saturation is stochastically distributed within the constructed 3D grid using Truncated Gaussian and Sequential Gaussian Simulation algorithms. Five different electrofacies (shale, marly limestone, argillaceous limestone, chalky limestone, and porous limestone) are recognized. The Khasib Formation is subdivided into 5 zones (A-E). The zone (Khasib E) is promising, and accumulates a considerable amount of oil with higher porosity and lower water saturation in the northwestern part of the field compared to the southeastern part. The area between the wells Ns-14, Ns-15, Ns-16 and Ns-18 can be the targeted area for production. Zones A and B are water-bearing, and they can be used for water injection purposes. This electrofacies-driven approach provides a detailed and accurate understanding of hydrocarbon accumulation and subsurface reservoir heterogeneity, offering valuable insights for Oilfield operations.

Integrated geophysical seismic measurements have been carried out at Al Layyah Power Generation Plant site, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates to determine the geotechnical properties of soil/rocks. The CHST is performed within a group of 3 boreholes, while a DHST is conducted at one site to determine a velocity profile. Active Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) data is carried out along one MASW line with a total length of 40 m. The measurements have been carried out between boreholes BH-03 and BH-04 along the asphaltic road at the study site. The estimating of dynamic soil properties from the outcomes of seismic surveys is discussed utilizing the seismic velocity acquired from the three locations. The processing and analysis of data and correlation with geological information are described based on the comparative evaluates of the corresponding 1D Vs profiles; it is concluded that CHST and DHST data are generally more reliable than MASW data. 1D Vs profiles obtained from MASW, CHST, and DHST are compared and the average Vs of the top 30 m (Vs30) is computed. There are similar up to 30 m of Vs profiles gained in all seismic tests. Consequently, a good quality recording, processing, and interpretation of MASW data allows dependable results and the same classification of the soil. It indicates that the Vp and Vs have a good correlation with the borehole log. Moreover, the site soil classification is found to be C (Very dense soil and soft rock profile) according to the Dubai Municipality Building Code (DIBC-2004) and the International Building Code (IBC 2009).

Application of ground-penetrating radar in Egypt has been addressed in archeological application in the last decade. The problem of the research is that the locations of the buried graves were not determined in the Valley of the Golden Mummies (VGM) where vehicles travel. The radar method is used to locate these graves and prevent vehicles from passing over them. The ground-penetrating radar method is used because of the ground-penetrating radar is an effective geophysical method in the study. The study area is divided into 7 grids whose dimensions are 50 m by 350 m in addition to the dimensions of each grid separately is 50 m × 50 m. To collect informations, the SIR-4000 device is used connected to a 200 MHz antenna, 350 profiles with a sepatation distance between profiles 1 m and 50 meters in length are measured, and 50 profiles are measured in each grid separately in the form of Zig-zag grid pattern sequentially. The data are processed using Reflexw program version 7.0 for processing GPR data and analyzing the ground-penetrating radar data to remove impurities and to express anomalies that exist in profiles. After completing the data processing, is interpretation is deducted, and the final results of the research reveal the discovery of two graves, the first one occupies an area of 6-8 m at a depth of 4.5 m, whereas the second grave occupies an area of 4 m and at a depth of 1.2 m.

Studying soil properties in the field and conducting laboratory examination of soil samples have become important issues that give significant hydrological indications through what the soil contains of various physical and chemical properties. Therefore, it is used in hydrological studies at the present time. This study aims to investigate and analyze the prevailing soil groups in the study area (Bashiqa) in terms of their physical and chemical properties such as (gypsum, organic materials, permeability, and texture). In order to deduce the hydrological indications from sampling, field-, and laboratory works, 18 sites have been identified and chosen on natural grounds over the study area for this purpose. Experiments are conducted to measure infiltration in the field for each of these chosen sites using the cylinder method, or what is called the cylindrical plunger. Then, the soil samples have been taken for laboratory examination. The laboratory analysis includes several variables, namely soil moisture content, soil texture, bulk (dry) density, organic matter, gypsum, and permeability. In addition, the results of the field and laboratory works of samples taken from the chosen sites have been analyzed, upon which they are relied in modeling the hydrological properties of the soil. The variables included in the modeling are initial infiltration depth, cumulative infiltration depth, organic matter, gypsum, bulk density, and soil hydrological group. Weights are distributed for each variable, and a layer has been prepared for it in the (GIS) environment and in a relational matrix, thus obtaining the outputs that indicate the extent of integration of the hydrological structure for the variable permeability. The results of the analysis show that the permeability in the study area is classified as medium permeability as that is found in most of the study area; then the high permeability category, which is widespread in various places in the study area. It is distributed in some areas of the northern, central and southern sections; followed by the third low permeability category, which is represented in specific areas located in the southeastern parts of the study area that allows the formation of very high-water flows if other superficial factors are present, such as slope, density of vegetation, prior soil moisture, etc. Through high permeability, it is possible to increase the amount of water flowing to the bottom and to recharge groundwater and exploit it through the wells that are abundant in the study area, which are used for drinking, irrigation, livestock watering, or restoring to other household water usage. While the low permeability increases the volume of surface water flows and the level of the rivers near the study area represented by Al-Khosar and Al- Khazir rivers.

The Sheikhan anticline is situated north of Mosul City near the Sheikhan town in the southwest boundary of the high folded zone within the part of the Zagros zone in the Iraqi segment. It is an asymmetrical double plunging anticline, and oriented in a NW – SE trend, it is verging to the northeast as the forelimb attitude, and the NW plunging area is wider than the pointed SE plunging area. The oldest exposed outcrops belong to Upper Cretaceous age; it locally forms the backbone of the mountain. Whereas, the thickly bedded hard limestone beds of the Pila Spi Formation, limestone and marls of Fat’ha Formation and, marls, siltstones, sandstones of Injana Formation form the flanks of the anticline. The geomorphological features explained by direct field data, integrated with the analysis of satellite image programs are used to deduce the directional side-propagation of the fold. It was found that the propagation of the anticline was started to form (present situation) northwest toward the southeast. Deep-seated transversal faults were controlled somehow to side-propagation imprinted as dome-like west of Gully Keer valley, and also wind gap and water gap may follow these fault traces. Some structural phenomena that define the progression of folding have been observed and explained.

The study aims to assess the validity of Fatha Formation limestone rocks in Mishraq area, Ninavah Governorate in northern Iraq for building stones and a railway ballast stones. Eight stations are selected for this study. The petrophysical tests show that the porosity varies between (5.401-16.362%), the absorption ratio varies between (2.078-7.515%), and the dry density varies between (2.177 - 2.601 g/cm3). The variation in the absorption and dry density values is caused by the variation in the limestone porosity values. Mechanical tests show that the compressive strength values range from (13.503 to 28.237 Mpa), the flexural strength range from (2.978 to 10.103 Mpa), and the mechanical erosion range from (37.7 to 53.8%). When compared with standard specifications for building stones (ASTM, C, 568-99, 2004) and railway ballast stones (Organization of Road and Bridge design department) (O.R.B.D, 1999), the limestone rocks in the study area are found to be suitable for building but not suitable as a railway ballast stones. The reason is that the requirements for the suitability of the examined limestone rocks for building purposes are lower than that for their suitability as railways ballast stones in terms of absorption ratio, dry density, and uniaxial compressive strength. as porosity has a significant impact on the decrease in the values of these properties.

Seismic refraction tomography is carried out at a proposed site for the University of Baba Gur-Gur, Kirkuk, Iraq. Four parallel compressional and shear-wave refraction profiles are accomplished to evaluate the dynamic and elastic moduli of the underlying soil and rocks by analyzing the compressional wave (Vp) and shear wave (Vs) velocities. The Vp and Vs are obtained using two refraction tomography (P and SH) acquisitions along each line. In addition, based on these seismic wave velocities and field density values, empirical and theoretical equations are used to evaluate the dynamic and elastic moduli. The results of velocity models agree with available borehole and outcrop information and show the transition from unconsolidated sediment (topsoil) at the surface to consolidated sedimentary rocks at depth. The results indicate that the study area has four layers with fairly velocity increasing with depth. The first layer with Vp (300-310 m/s) and Vs (110 -115 m/s) predominantly consists of topsoil and forms overburden (competent and sometimes loose soil) and has a thickness (<1 m). The second layer has Vp (830-870 m/s), and Vs (310- 325 m/s) with a thickness range from (3 to 4) m. This layer is suggested to be clayey siltstone belonging to the Mukdadiya Formation. The third layer represented by relatively high Vp (1560-1580 m/s) and Vs (675-685 m/s) with a thickness range from (3 to 7 m) is suggested to be relatively denser clayey siltstone. The bedrock represented by the fourth layer with Vp > 2400 m/s and Vs >1100 m/s is considered the sandstone of the Mukdadiya Formation. According to the information provided, the 3rd and 4th layers are appropriate for the engineering project. The resulting geotechnical properties in the area can be used for the preliminary foundation design of any engineering construction.

Petrophysical properties of the Early Jurassic Butmah Formation are investigated in three wells (Kand-1, Kd-1; Sheikh Adi-1B, SA-1B; and Shaikan-5B, Sh-5B), in northern Iraq. The data from the well logs are digitized using NeuraLog software, and they were evaluated using Interactive Petrophysics (IP) software. The lithological cross-plots show that the Butmah Formation is mainly comprised of limestone, dolomitic limestone, and dolomite with shale and anhydrite layers. Comparing the wells, it becomes clear that the Butmah Formation in well (Kd-1) has a low effective porosity in the first zone and some depths in the third zone, while it has a higher effective porosity in the first and second zones of wells (Sh-5B) and (SA-1B). Due to the presence of shale, microporosity, and anhydrite cement, the sonic porosity (matrix porosity) has increased at several depth intervals, especially in the (Sh-5B) and (SA-1B) wells. Five permeable zones have been determined based on the permeability curves for the Sh-5B and SA-1B wells. The limited permeability of the Butmah Formation is mostly attributed to the presence of anhydrite cement and shale, whereas the high permeability may be caused by fractures, particularly opened fractures, as well as other factors including the shape and tortuosity of the pores. The presence of shale layers and cement hurts all the petrophysical characteristics in the Butmah Formation, especially in the (Kd-1) well. However, when a reservoir unit is present beneath these beds, they may serve as a good seal or cap. The hydrocarbon saturation (Sh) results from this study show that the (SA-1B) well exhibits high hydrocarbon saturation compared to the (Sh-5B) well.

The land surface temperature (LST) of the Earth is one of the most important factors influencing the exchange of energy and moisture between the Earth's surface and atmosphere. Through this, it can describe the distribution of thermal radiation emitted from the Earth's surface spatially and temporally. LST is critical in many areas and for various purposes, including agriculture, environment, and environmental protection. The primary objective of this study is to study the changes in the temperature of the Earth's surface occurring in Karbala, Iraq, with the help of GIS geospatial techniques to estimate the temperature of the Earth's surface for 2013 and 2023. The Landsat 9 and 8 OLI/TIRS images are processed using the software ArcGIS v10.8. The results show an increase in LST values between 2013 and 2023 of about 4 degrees. The analysis of LST maps show that the minimum temperatures exist in the water bodies, while the maximum temperatures are found in the category of built areas.

During the Palynological study of well documented Lower Jurassic Butmah Formation, Lower Cretaceous reworked Dinocysts are identified (11 genera and 12) species as follows:
Spiniferites ramosus; Endoscrinium luridum; Operculodinella operculata; Hystrichodinium pulchrum; Palaeo Peridinium cretaceum; Pareodinia ceratophora; Endoceratium turneri; Endoscrinium pharo; Coronifera oceanica; Achomosphaera neptuni; Glossodinium dimorphum. The identification of these reworked Dinocysts genera and species are typical of Lower Cretaceous age. These results confirm and support that these Dinocysts were probably originated and infiltrated from the younger Garagu Formation (Lower Cretaceous) (Late Berriasian-Vallangenian) age that rests unconformably upon the Sargelu Formation of Mid Jurassic (Bajocian-Bathonian) age and supporting the presence of unconformable (a break) relationship between uppermost Jurassic (Tithonian) and lowermost Cretaceous (Early Berriasian) successions in this subsurface section, which is marked by the missing of Gotnia Formation (Late Jurassic) (early Tithonian-Callovian) age and the Lower Sarmord due to an active erosive or non-depositional processes occurred in the studied section. These associations of Lower Cretaceous Dinocysts are of great taxonomic and biostratigraphic value for further future studies on the Lower Cretaceous successions in Iraq. These species are important in palaeontology because they can be used to identify and dating the age of rock formations as well as providing information about the mode of type of life that existed during a particular time period. Dinocysts can also be used to reconstruct ancient environments and climates making them a valuable tool for understanding the history of the Earth.

The current research presents a petrophysical evaluation of the carbonate reservoir rocks of Sinjar Formation units (Paleocene-Early Eocene) in well (K-319), Kirkuk Oilfield, northeastern Iraq. The thickness of the formation is about 55 m, and it is divided into two units, the lower unit (23 m), which includes successive limestone and dolomitic limestone, and the upper unit (32 m), which includes dolomitic limestone beds. Thin sections, wireline logs (density, neutron, and gamma-ray), and modern programs have been used to study the accumulation and productivity of hydrocarbons in this oilfield through the study of reservoir properties including volume of shale, lithology, calculating and classifying of porosity, and reservoir partitioning, which is determined based on interpreted and analyzed data from logs. According to the petrophysical properties of the reservoir rocks, Sinjar Formation is divided into four porosity zones, zone (A) that demonstrates very good porosity (25-35%), zones (B and D) of intermediate to good porosity (10-25%), and zone (C) that exhibits poor porosity (5-12%) because of the high shale content, which hinders the fluid flow and reduces porosity. Thin sections are examined for porosity classification. There are two main porosity types in Sinjar Formation. The first type is interparticle porosity in its three classes, class (a) of grainstone facies, class (b) of packstone facies, and class (c) of mudstone facies. The second type is vuggy porosity of both types: separate vug pores and touching vug pores. The interparticle porosity is considered one of the most critical features affecting the transport of liquids and gases inside rocks.

Although the deposition of the Khurmala Formation within the Paleocene-Eocene AP10 Megasequence was controlled by the tectonic environment, the synchronization of AP10 deposition with the so-called the Paleocene - Eocene thermal maximum extreme global climatic hyperthermal events had left an imprint on the details of the Khurmala Formation characteristics. The present study aims to elicit the depositional environment for Khurmala Formation, in addition to trace the inherited paleoclimatic indicators or imprints on the studied section. The study of litho-microfacies of the Khurmala Formation in the Bakoz village section in Dohuk City, northern Iraq reveals that the Khurmala Formation was deposited in a ramp paleoenvironment affected by storm action under warming tropical climate conditions. Planktonic foraminifera age determination in integration with both sedimentary environment properties and x-ray diffraction interpretations indicate that the deposition of the Khurmala Formation bears many imprints of long-term warming trend conditions from the Late Paleocene to Early Eocene (58 to 50 Ma).