Athar al-rafedain

The research deals with four unpublished cuneiform texts, in which are among the confiscated texts kept in the Iraqi Museum according to decree (No.119) for the years 2020-2021 This collection begins with the number of (IM.239....). The cuneiform texts that the researcher will deal with are economic texts from the era of Ur III specifically the ones that date back to the (46-48) of the reign of King Šulgi and the first year of the reign of his son King Amar-Sin which are texts of receiving barley by a person named Zalia.

It appeared in the Akkadian linguistic dictionaries and cuneiform texts that express the term of gift and according to the time period and through the Assyrian royal antiquities that we have received from texts, temples, palaces, tombs, and etc. These examples of terms addressed the relationship of Mesopotamia with the countries of the ancient Near East. Among these terms ( Šulmanu ) which means gift, where the rules of behavior governs the relations between kings and rulers and the regular exchange of gifts between rulers is an expression of friendship. The interruption of its continuity indicates the beginning of severing relations and thus the gifts have dual functions as on the one hand they enabled the itch to obtain Rare materials locally and reinforced the issue of mutual respect and appreciation and the unification of relations between the ancient kingdoms on the other hand. It was mentioned in the Akkadian language a number of implicit and collusion formulas indicating the gift were mentioned within nominal and verbal combinations used to denote (send, give, present) bearing the meaning of the gift as an indication of the gift from it (Ídu, edu) means to give as well as to mean (Kanāku) give or receive under seal (correspond through sealed documents) and (Ma ḫ aru) “take or receive” documents that appeared especially in the contents of administrative texts.

The architect used this type of half circle nodes in the corridor for constructional reasons and climatic considerations. As far as concern the construction side is the rehabilitation of the ground floor’s nodes of the building to hold the building parts on the first floor of the western corridor represented by the side column and the two nodes. As far as concern the climate aspect, the semicircular contracts work to introduce larger amounts of light to the rooms overlooking the corridor and at the same time provide protection for the rooms from rain and wind.
Through the observations of them, we noticed what the architect did and what the engraver showed through merging the art with architecture considering that the architect used a repetitive changeable pattern of nodes by building five similar nodes but they different in sizes and dimensions and the architect used the principle of unity in the engravings. The architect implemented the palm fan element and framed it from all directions with an geometrical engravings of saw teeth so the weight and balance are different when looking into it and make the split between these nodes similar to the twisted rope.

Education in ancient Iraq has received great attention since the beginning of historical times, that is; since the ancient Iraqis invented the first writing system in the middle or late fourth millennium BC. What supports this claim is that a large number of the oldest excavated clay tablets hold depictions included a large quantity of educational or schools texts. Considering the methodology of education adopted by ancient Iraqis and curricula is considering the first of its kind by the ancient Iraqis and therefore it is necessary to examine that and clarify its various aspects and defining its importance and to indicate the prominent role of the ancient Iraqis in laying the foundations on which education was based in the following ages in the various countries and regions that were undoubtedly affected by what the Iraqis achieved seniors in this field.

The study of my research necessitated the study of one of the architectural and decorative elements that is represented by the element of the shell in the architecture of the city of Mosul during the Ottoman era. The city of Mosul is rich of Antiquates and decorations in a beautiful and creative artistic style including the decoration of the shell. Studies focused on the architecture of many religious and civil sites.
The importance of this decorative element lies in its spread over most of the ancient buildings that were studied academically in various eras up to the Ottoman era. One of the challenges that I faced as a researcher is the lack of resources and references where it was mentioned accidently not to mention the difficulties regarding some mosques in Mosul city on the field. Some mosques in the city of Mosul were under restoration due to ISIS destruction. My paper dealt with al-Hannaya of the Shells in the Ottoman era in the mosques of the city of Mosul for the year (1213 AH / 1798 AD).

In the second half of the third millennium BC, ancient Iraq was ruled by dozens of rulers and kings who followed several methods in dating the years of their rule and the most prominent of which was the date formulae or what is known as (the system of names of years). They are formulas that included prominent and important information regarding civilization about the history of Mesopotamia and the actions of its rulers and kings, as it was a rich material from a linguistic point of view.
In this research, we will deal with a model of one of the kingdoms of the ancient Babylonian era represented by the Kingdom of Eshnunna (1726-2026 B.C.E) whose kings adopted the Date Formula in dating the years of their rule. The course of studying these formulas is based on two directions, the first of which is to shed light on the Kingdom of Amorite that ruled an important part of the land of Iraq and adjacent to the country of Elam at that time which took turns ruling over more than twenty kings and included important sites that were the source of hundreds of clay figures written on various topics.
Secondly, the research aims to study the historical formulas of the rulers and kings of the Kingdom of Eshnunna and to analyze them and interpret the contents that have political, religious, military, artistic and urban connotations.

Building materials are the basic and first component that helped the ancient Iraqi architecture in creating and shaping the building. The natural environment in ancient Iraq was considered the most influential factor in the formation of building materials through what its land provides despite what the land is having of many geographical advantages. The land lacked several materials used in construction such as iron, silver, and gold. In addition to the good and rare types of wood which forced the ancient Iraqis to import them from neighbouring regions in several ways including trade and this issue developed where the kings led military campaigns for some materials such as wood and precious metals. It is worth to mention in this regard that the ancient Iraqi architecture created and developed building materials and took it to him to know the pros and cons of each material separately. In order to get benefit from the positives and to use them including the strength and durability of the building, and to avoid the negatives and to address them so the architect can create architectural elements to solve them and to increase the aesthetics of the buildings in which the most prominent was the innovation of the style of the looks and entrances on the walls of buildings especially the temples from the outside which were supporting the mud brick walls due to the fear of falling in addition to being an aesthetic aspect.

Beer is considered as one of the important food industries that became famous in ancient Iraq and it represents the first drink for the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, as indicated by artistic scenes especially the scenes of cylindrical seals as well as cuneiform sources represented by texts and messages discovered that referred in some of their contents to the brewer and barley in accordance to material and written evidence.
This industry in Mesopotamia seems to have been managed by the women particularly and this industry depends mainly in its preparation on barley and wheat. However, barley is the main material of the industry.

Buildings of all kinds are considered an important pillar in any archaeological research and even contribute a lot to reaching facts and compelling evidence. The importance of documentation lies in archaeological studies when there are serious circumstances that may affect these antiquities and clarify the importance of the antiquity.
As a result, it is an obligation to study the trace and some antiquities that was destroyed by ISIS who ruined them including the topic of this research and as regard to the building which is considered a national and religious treasure which cannot be replaced. It is a great production to the human being in general and Iraq in particular which we will elaborate in detail as follow.

The research aims to study an important and prominent aspect of a house from the role of the town of Tel Kaif as an attempt to see the legacy of this district through our field study and to identify the most prominent planning and architectural features of its landmark buildings which are considered a civilized and architect heritage and a kind of cultural heritgae. In a certain era, the aesthetic values and heritage characteristics of its material, cultural and intellectual production gathered. The research is about studying the planning and architecture of a residential building and it was reinforced with a set of plans that included detailed measurements of the building for both floors and illustrative pictures of the building units as well as personal interviews that were conducted with well-known people from the town and relatives of the owner of the house to find out the history of building the house and its affiliated arch to document it as one of the unstudied buildings which did not receive the attention and documentation of archaeologists before. It is unfortunate that it is subject to loss and demolition and then extinction and neglected. The Department of Antiquities and Heritage should take care of the districts and their heritage buildings and to document them to be a record so as to be full of its inhabitants and its cultural heritage.

The research aims to study an important and prominent aspect of a house from the role of the town of Tel Kaif as an attempt to see the legacy of this district through our field study and to identify the most prominent planning and architectural features of its landmark buildings which are considered a civilized and architect heritage and a kind of cultural heritgae. In a certain era, the aesthetic values and heritage characteristics of its material, cultural and intellectual production gathered. The research is about studying the planning and architecture of a residential building and it was reinforced with a set of plans that included detailed measurements of the building for both floors and illustrative pictures of the building units as well as personal interviews that were conducted with well-known people from the town and relatives of the owner of the house to find out the history of building the house and its affiliated arch to document it as one of the unstudied buildings which did not receive the attention and documentation of archaeologists before. It is unfortunate that it is subject to loss and demolition and then extinction and neglected. The Department of Antiquities and Heritage should take care of the districts and their heritage buildings and to document them to be a record so as to be full of its inhabitants and its cultural heritage.

Through the published and unpublished cuneiform texts that were studied in this research that talk about a number of workers of the Kourosh class as this class of workers constitutes the highest percentage among the group of workers of the Ur III period and it is considered as a basic base in its economy in terms of providing labor and these workers are organized in groups and teams under the supervision of one of the observers and are associated with the work throughout the year. This type of workers practiced work related to land, agriculture, harvesting, animal husbandry, milling, and other work that they used to do some type of the works. The records and lists of workers’ names, daily, monthly, and annual ration tables and others have been closely related to economic activity. Exploiting surplus production in the development of the economic structure is what represents the industrial sector in Mesopotamia.

Through the published and unpublished cuneiform texts that were studied in this research that talk about a number of workers of the Kourosh class as this class of workers constitutes the highest percentage among the group of workers of the Ur III period and it is considered as a basic base in its economy in terms of providing labor and these workers are organized in groups and teams under the supervision of one of the observers and are associated with the work throughout the year. This type of workers practiced work related to land, agriculture, harvesting, animal husbandry, milling, and other work that they used to do some type of the works. The records and lists of workers’ names, daily, monthly, and annual ration tables and others have been closely related to economic activity. Exploiting surplus production in the development of the economic structure is what represents the industrial sector in Mesopotamia.

The research seeks to study a heritage building in city of Zakho in which most of its features have disappeared under the soil and its ceilings have completely disappeared due to negligence and natural factors. Although the study came late but it is importance lies in showing the characteristics of this type of building which had its place among people several decades ago. Renewable energy sources instead of diesel or even electric machines that require exorbitant costs in order to operate and which are not devoid of sources of emissions harmful to human health and the environment.
The Hazim Bky Watermill is one of the important heritage buildings in Zakho city as it is located on the bank of the Khabour River in one of the neighborhoods of the old city which is called (Semalka) neighborhood. Our focus is on documenting this Building because it did not get any attention by researchers before. It was neglected a lot until it became a ruin after it was a landmark. Therefore, studying it require to rely on field visits to his site of which only ruins of the walls remained so the measurements were taken and photographed and engineering drawings were made to represent projections of the building and vertical sections of the building. The building was abandoned and what left is only the foundations and ruins of it and its outer walls.

The city of Mosul is considered as a model of religious and national coexistence between different religions and sectors through what we found of the population fabric and the urban fabric where we notice the existence of the role of Jews and Christians between the role of Muslims and we find the highest level of peaceful and community coexistence and the influence of the population fabric by customs, traditions, civil and cultural exchange has reached the highest level of familiarity and brotherhood and the best evidence for that is the Holy Qur’an in the words of the Most High in His decisive Book (And We made you into peoples and tribes so that you may know each other.
The city of Mosul included the role of the Jews in the neighborhoods of the Jews (Al-Ahmadiyya) in the lintels of its doors, the tops of its windows, the deaf ones, and the walls of its rooms. Writings in the Hebrew language and the well-known Hebrew script in the codification of religious texts were often. In this study, we have translated and analyzed the writings and inscriptions found in these houses. The study was divided into multiple topics to show the language and the Hebrew script on the doors and entrances of the houses that were inhabited by the Jews in the city of Mosul and to study them from an aesthetic, heritage and archaeological point of view.

Barrages are among the important architectural facilities that were usually built on rivers and small streams that have a great connection in irrigation and agriculture projects that have come down to reached us about this type of crossing .on the other side especially in the city of Assyria ,arches were also used to connect the houses with each other They were used to connect two houses .The arches are types that are other individual arches important building structures that were built for irrigation purposes especially in the city of Assyria .Arches have important functional uses,they are either for crossing,as they carry bridges or to carry water channels ,and they have agricultural and economic some of them have a sugar benefit as well ,in addition to the fact that they work strengthen the bridge and keep it for a longer period .Remember that some of them are big and some are small ,depending on the seven course of the river if needed.and the arches are linked to the bridges as a complementary thing to the other .Arches were used in bridges ,so there are arches bridges as is the case in the bridge in the city of Nineveh ,and the arches in Jarwana which are closely visible

The study of the royal inscriptions including the writings of the door hooks are considered the pillars of archaeological studies that shed light on an important aspect of the rich Mesopotamian civilization especially the urban works undertaken by the inhabitants of Mesopotamia. The discovery of these door sockets during archaeological excavations is reflecting great importance in identifying the dates of the buildings and the names of their builders.
From a scientific point of view, the door socket represented an essential joint in performing the function of the door in the construction of building as it works to move the door smoothly through its association with several parts that help to move the door of the constructed building. The door socket traces their historical roots back to the Sumerians and after them are the Akkadians (Babylonians, Assyrians). The kings deliberately wrote down their genealogies and titles that reflected several concepts. Then the kings mentioned their architectural works and their various achievements and here lies their importance from an archaeological point of view in terms of determining the era in which these were built. The buildings as well as the kings or the people who supervised their construction and establishment. In addition to this archaeological importance for our study have a linguistic importance as they introduce us to the preamble formulas that were commonly recorded on these sockets and the stylistic linguistic developments that occurred in them through the ages.

The study of the royal inscriptions including the writings of the door hooks are considered the pillars of archaeological studies that shed light on an important aspect of the rich Mesopotamian civilization especially the urban works undertaken by the inhabitants of Mesopotamia. The discovery of these door sockets during archaeological excavations is reflecting great importance in identifying the dates of the buildings and the names of their builders.
From a scientific point of view, the door socket represented an essential joint in performing the function of the door in the construction of building as it works to move the door smoothly through its association with several parts that help to move the door of the constructed building. The door socket traces their historical roots back to the Sumerians and after them are the Akkadians (Babylonians, Assyrians). The kings deliberately wrote down their genealogies and titles that reflected several concepts. Then the kings mentioned their architectural works and their various achievements and here lies their importance from an archaeological point of view in terms of determining the era in which these were built. The buildings as well as the kings or the people who supervised their construction and establishment. In addition to this archaeological importance for our study have a linguistic importance as they introduce us to the preamble formulas that were commonly recorded on these sockets and the stylistic linguistic developments that occurred in them through the ages.