Iraqi Bulletin of Geology and Mining

The present research aims to determine the types of sedimentary structures observed in sand dune fields deposited in Al-Shehabi area, Wasit Governorate, eastern Iraq. Al-Shahabi sand dune field is located within the eastern dune belt in Iraq, which is considered one of the active belts. Inorganic and organic sedimentary structures were observed in the studied area. The major inorganic sedimentary structures determined in the studied area are cross-stratification, lamination, ripple marks, adhesion structures, and slump. The main types of organic sedimentary structures include boring, burrows, footprints, and dikaka. Many types of ripple marks observed in the studied area include straight crest, lunate, and sinuous. From the straight crest the direction of these dunes is North West to South-East as related to the prevailing wind direction in Iraq and the second direction observed in some ripple marks structures is South East to North West.

This study aimed to create a landslide susceptibility map for the Qaiwan, Goizha, and Azmer mountains series in northeastern Iraq, especially along the two-lane road network connecting the area to the Iranian border. The region holds significance for ecotourism within the Sulaimaniyah Governorate. Landslide susceptibility was assessed based on three methods. The first structural analysis of discontinuity reveals that the ac and bc set with hk0 > a, hk0 > b, and h0l > c systems are the most dominant discontinuity which acts as a back release and lateral release surfaces and causes the occurrence of different types of the landslide from more to less are wedge sliding, toppling, plane sliding, and rockfall. The second and third are landslide frequency ratio and analytical hierarchy process analyses which encompassing layers of slope, aspect, lithology, altitude, curvature, road network, and stream attributes were generated using remote sensing. These layers were integrated with ArcGIS software to create two maps, the first based on the analytical hierarchy process model and the second based on the landslide frequency ratio model. Landslide susceptibility maps were created and then classified into five zones: very low, low, moderate, high, and very high hazard. The moderate hazard zone covered the largest area (34.6 Km²), while the very high hazard zone was the smallest (5.5 Km²). The overall accuracy of the susceptibility map, assessed using appropriate methods, was approximately 75%, indicating the effectiveness of the employed models.

In the Bazian basin in northern Iraq, groundwater plays a crucial role in agriculture and other activities. Unfortunately, excessive legal and illegal well extraction over the past three decades has led to a significant decline in the water table. To address this challenge, the study combined geographic information system (GIS) data with Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT). The objective is to create a geospatial model for groundwater potential zoning using multi-criteria analysis techniques, supported by geophysical approaches. This study used seven thematic layers, including geology, rainfall, slope, lineament density, drainage density, land use/land cover, and runoff, and finally combined them with remote sensing data, Google Earth Engine, and conventional information within the GIS environment. Thematic layers were ranked based on their importance for groundwater potential and weighted using the multi-criteria decision analysis and Analytical Hierarchy Process (MCDA-AHP). Two-dimensional (2D) electrical resistivity tomography was conducted using the SYSCAL R1 PLUS along three profile lines distributed over the study area. The data were recorded using the Wenner – Schlumberger array, and the raw data were subsequently processed using the Res2dinv software. The resulting groundwater potential zones for the total area (362) km2 (GWPZs) were categorized into five zones: very low, low, moderate, high, and very high. The covered area for each level was 4.4%, 8.9%, 34.3%, 32.7%, and 19.7%, respectively. Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and well extraction rates are used to validate groundwater potential zones (GWPZs). The results from three ERT profiles align with the potential zone map. Additionally, a second validation using extraction rates from 40 wells was used to confirm these findings.

Petrophysical characteristics of the Shiranish Formation were analyzed at the Shewashan-2 (SH-2) and Bazian-1 (BZ-1) wells within the selected oilfields. The suggested lithology for the studied formation is limestone and marly limestone. Moreover, at the SH-2 well, the formation tends to have a lower shale content, which gradually increases downward in the well. Meanwhile, in the BZ-1 well, the middle of the studied formation consists mainly of shaly and shale intervals. In addition, it is observed that porosity values generally decrease deeper in the SH-2 wells, with most values being less than 7.0 %. However, there are a few intervals where porosity increases. On the other hand, the BZ-1 well indicates a pattern of higher porosity at the top of the formation, gradually decreasing towards the bottom of the Shiranish Formation. It appears that the studied formation shows a higher porosity in the BZ-1 compared to the SH-2 well. Additionally, the secondary porosity at the top of the Shiranish Formation in the SH-2 well measures around 2.0 to 5.0%. Nevertheless, in the BZ-1 well, it varies between less than 5.0% and 10%. Porosity along both SH-2 and BZ-1 wells is generally greater at the upper part of the Shiranish Formation. Regarding the permeability, it seems that the formation has a poor to fair permeability in the well of SH-2, meanwhile, it shows moderate to good permeability at the BZ-1 well. The Shiranish Formation can be divided into three reservoir units depending on the shale volume, porosity, and permeability. The RU-3 demonstrates the most significant reservoir characteristics in both of the studied wells. Nevertheless, the reservoir quality was found to be the lowest in RU-1 for the SH-2 and BZ-1 wells. Furthermore, a significant majority of the pore spaces in the formation are occupied by residual hydrocarbons.

Chert beds occur as thick successions of about 5 – 30 m thick in the middle part of the Qulqula Radiolarian Formation (ORF). They have studied geochemically in two sections for decoding the origin of silica, the provenance of clastic fraction, and the redox conditional environment. These successions are several and comprise about 25% thickness of the formation. For these purposes, 27 samples are quarried regularly from two exposed outcrop sections; Zalan and Kaolos in northeastern Iraq, located 20 Km north of Chwarta and 7 Km north of SaidSadik towns, respectively. These samples were analyzed for the major oxides, trace and rare earth elements, and total organic carbon. The thin section study indicated that most cherts have fine grain texture with ghosts of silicified detrital grains with few radiolarian tests. The discriminant function and binary diagrams of major oxides of samples indicated that these beds belong to the arc and diversional tectonic settings. The ratios of the trace elements indicate several origins of silica of QRF such as felsic and wind-blown detrital grains which are deposited under oxic to suboxic conditions and fairly biogenic. The discrimination diagrams and PAAS-normalized trace and rare earth elements indicate several sources of silica such as Mid-Oceanic-Ridge. High quantities of silica are released by sub-marine weathering and quartzose dust influx from the western desert as the primary source of silica. This condition is similar to the influx of silica-rich dust from the African Desert to the Amazon Forest. The radiolaria tests and sponges, whose siliceous remains are observed as a minor fraction of the silica in the bedded cherts. These sources supersaturated the environments QRF and developed bedded chert in deep basins below CCD where silica is stable instead of carbonates and falls within the range of felsic rock.

The importance of reviewing and revising the status of the formal stratigraphic classification of Iraq mandates detailed and careful processes that present a better and more practical tool for the understanding of the geology of Iraq. These processes are expected to include: introducing units, subdivision of existing units, removal of some units, merging and unification of others, and so on. However, a few important considerations should be taken into account to reach the best results out of this process. Among these: a). Unification and reduction are better than further subdivision and expansion. b). All Changes must follow the standard procedures set by the Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclatures of the International Stratigraphic Commission on Stratigraphy. c). Modification of the stratigraphic setting must consider the cyclic nature of the stratigraphic record and the eustatic effects and controls on sedimentation. d). Basin-wide facies regional relations and distribution are important in the interpretation of the stratigraphic relations and subdivision. e). In reviewing and redefining the stratigraphic situation of any unit, we must differentiate between lithostratigraphy, biofacies, and lithofacies. Formal units are defined solely by their lithostratigraphic characters. f). Formal classification of the stratigraphic units of the Zagros Suture Zone becomes increasingly necessary.

This study presents data on Radioactive Heat Generation (RHG) from Jurassic and Cretaceous successions in selected wells along the Zagros belt in Northern Iraq. A total of 2,600 meters of rock intervals were analyzed, encompassing all Jurassic and Cretaceous successions within the conjugated zone of the High and Low Folded zones. RHG values were obtained from Uranium, Thorium, and Potassium concentrations, measured using Gamma Ray Spectrometry and Normal Gamma Ray logs. These measurements reflect the RHG resulting from the decay of Uranium-Radium series isotopes (U238, U235, and U234), the Th232 series, and the primary decay of K40.
In the Jurassic section, the heat generation rate ranges from 1.51 µW/m³ in the upper part of the Butmah Formation to 5.52 µW/m³ in the Naokelekan Formation. In the Cretaceous section, it varies from 0.77 µW/m³ in the Kometan Formation to 1.48 µW/m³ in the Sarmord Formation.
The contribution of these RHG rates to the subsurface temperature is approximately 2.60 mW/m² for the Jurassic section and 1.54 mW/m² for the Cretaceous section. These findings can be applied to evaluate how lateral variations in RHG rates influence heat flux and temperature distribution within the upper crust and sedimentary basins, particularly in terms of radioactive heat flow (RHF).

A seismic study of 2D/3D data Volume of Merjan-West Kifl oil fields, in central Iraq, was conducted to delineate karst features and fault systems in the area and their role in hydrocarbon migration. 3D Seismic data depict karst features and faults that act as a pathway to migrate hydrocarbons from Late Jurassic source rocks (Sargelue and Sulaiy formations) to the Early Cretaceous reservoir rocks (Hartha, Sadi, Nahr Umr, and Zubair formations) in the area. Most of the Cretaceous carbonate formations, such as Yamama, Shuaiba, and Mishrif in the area, have undergone chemical erosion after deposition and diagenesis, generating karst features. Their surfaces appear as irregular depressions at erosion or collapse of deeper karst hole locations. The seismic reflection image below the karst feature is poor because they have significantly slower velocities than the surrounding sediments. Consequently, high contrast in acoustic impedance occurs, and the seismic reflection signature is distinctive as a Gull-winged depression in cross-section. This was permitted to delineate and map the karst in the area. The size of these karsts is usually a few meters to a few hundred. Delineation of the karst features was attempted utilizing seismic attributes mapping using a variance cube. Seismic attributes were applied to confirm the physical properties and behavior of karsts. They were illustrated with low frequency and high reflection magnitude.

Complex geological structures and varying data quality present a unique challenge for seismic interpretation and pitfalls related to normal fault interpretation. Therefore, seismic conditioning and structural filters are necessary to improve faults and horizon interpretation and to obtain high-quality seismic attributes. This study applied structure-oriented conditioning with filters along 3D seismic data to reduce noise and increase seismic resolution. To achieve this enhancement in the seismic data, it is essential to differentiate between the dip and azimuth of the reflection signal and that of the noise. Two methods were applied in this study to get the dip and azimuth of the reflection signal: first, by applying structural smoothing on the seismic volume to get a smoothed version of the dip, and second, by applying structural attributes. The structural smoothing filter is used in this study to minimize noise, enhance structural imaging, and generally improve the volume for seismic interpretation and the application of other volume attributes. It is concluded that the seismic section with dip-guided variance attribute showed better results in enhancing fault edges. Larger values of this filter reduce noise effectively and smear the detected edges' sharpness. The results also demonstrate the effectiveness of variance attributes for edge detection of faults compared with dip-deviation and curvature attributes. Also, this study showed that for 3D seismic data, an anti-track filter for fault identification is the most effective filter to detect faults.

Clay is an important and basic raw material in the manufacture of ceramic products for building construction. Therefore, exploring clay deposits for previously unstudied areas and determining their suitability for ceramic materials is one of our priorities for the development and creation of job opportunities for citizens of the same region. The aim of the study is to evaluate the clays of the Bussiya area in Al-Muthanna Governorate for building materials applications, and to prepare the models, the properties of clay and its thermal behavior must be studied, to identify its suitability for the ceramic industry and its behavior during forming and firing, as well as the effect of adding sand, feldspar, and the calcined clay. The components are dry-pressed with a pressure of 10 KN and fired at different temperatures (950, 1050, and 1100) °C. With a burning rate of 5º/min and a maturation time of one and a half hours, According to the laboratory results )physical and mechanical (showed the behavior of the clays when burning and the effect of all additions on them, the use of 25% sand has a clear effect on the properties of calcined and un-calcined clay, according to the temperatures that are appropriate for each application as mentioned in American Society for Testing and Materials specifications.

Groundwater contamination from human activities is a significant concern for sustainable water resource management, particularly in Mediterranean climates such as the Penjween Basin (PB). Effective management requires comprehensive risk assessments, including hazard and vulnerability mapping. This study presents a novel approach by using phosphate (PO4⁻3) concentrations rather than nitrate (NO3-) to validate groundwater vulnerability assessments, providing a new perspective for contamination risk studies. Adhering to the European COST Action 620 guidelines, the methodology integrates hazard and vulnerability mapping with the PO4-3-DRASTIC model. Both standard and pesticide DRASTIC indices were employed to analyze vulnerability and determine the more reliable method for constructing a risk intensity map tailored to the region’s complex aquifer system. The standard DRASTIC index categorized groundwater pollution vulnerability into four classes: Very low (23.2%), Low (47.7%), Moderate, and High. The pesticide DRASTIC index (88 - 207) identified five classes: Very low, Low, Moderate (39.9%), High (33.9%), and very high. Validation with phosphate concentrations from 40 groundwater sources (ranging from 0.01 to 4.86 mg/l, with 70% exceeding the Iraqi guideline of 0.4 mg/l) indicated that the pesticide DRASTIC model provided a more accurate representation of groundwater vulnerability in this region. The highest-risk areas, located in the southwestern region (Braim Awa Plain, Penjween Town) and along stream banks, are characterized by intergranular aquifers, intensive agricultural practices, and urban development. This study's novelty lies in the use of PO4³⁻ as a validation parameter and the comparative analysis of standard and pesticide DRASTIC models to address complex hydrogeological conditions. The findings emphasize the importance of targeted management strategies, including restrictions on agrochemical use in high-vulnerability zones. Future research should focus on dynamic evaluation methods, improved monitoring systems, and sustainable agrochemical management to ensure long-term groundwater protection in regions with similar aquifer systems.

The Naopurdan Limestone unit was investigated for the first time in the Dawzhan section, Sulaimaniyah, Kurdistan Region, NE Iraq, with a focus on large benthic foraminifera. Well-preserved species of benthic foraminifera were identified as belonging to the genera Alveolina, Nummulites, Lokhartia, Operculina, Assilina, Rotalia, Disclocyclina, Glomalvelina, and Orbitolites. Among these, Alveolina stood out as the most diverse genus, encompassing fifteen species such as Alveolina archiaci, A. solilda, A.subovata, A. palermitana, A. oblonga, A.cf. munieri, A. leupoldi, A. laxa, A. ilierdensis, A. aff. haymanensis, A. globoas, A. globula, A. elliptica, A. decipiens, A. cosigena, and A. sp. A comparison of these recognized microfossils with previously reported assemblages from Iraq and other Tethyan sub-basins indicates that the deposition took place during the Eocene and corresponds to Shallow Benthic Foraminiferal Zones (SBZ 5-18). The abundance and diversity of the larger benthic foraminifera suggest that the Naopurdan Limestone Unit was formed under transgressive conditions.

The reservoir properties of the Jeribe Formation have been investigated from three wells in the southern dome of the Hamrin Oilfield (Allas Dome) based on conventional log data and cutting rock samples. The studied wells are arranged along the axis of the structure, which is in a southeast-northwest direction, with well Hr-50 being at the southeast part, followed by Hr-51 and Hr-49 towards the northwest. The Jeribe Formation's microfacies and wireline log analysis in the three wells located at the Allas Dome of the Hamrin Oilfield led to the conclusion that both lithology variations and fluid content within the formation's pore spaces are responsible for the variations in the recorded data of the wireline logs in well Hr-50 toward the northwest locations of wells Hr-51 and Hr-49. The Jeribe Formation's lithology at well HR-50 is mainly dolostone, with more prevalent grainstone microfacies. As it moves toward the other two wells, it becomes predominantly limestone, with increasing contents of wackestone and packstone microfacies. The formation in well HR-50 has an average shale content of roughly 18.2% and an average porosity of about 18.8%. In well HR-51, the average shale content and porosity are nearly 16.21% and 12.37%, respectively, while in well HR-49, the average shale content is about 18% and porosity about 12.73%. In well Hr-50, the distribution of the formation's shale is dispersed, laminated, and structural, whereas in the other two wells, dispersed shale distribution is nearly the only type that exists in the Jeribe Formation. The secondary porosity in the formation appears to be represented by separated voids, molds, and vugs, with well HR-50 exhibiting the largest percentage of secondary porosity (average 3.1%). The Jeribe Formation in wells Hr-51 and Hr-49 have predominantly gas reservoired hydrocarbons, while in well Hr-50 the formation is more likely to have oil reservoired hydrocarbons with a sizable immovable fraction. The three study wells' computed RQI and FZI values for the Jeribe Formation show that the formation has a tight reservoir rock type.

Conventional well-logging methods are crucial for detecting petrophysical properties and are instrumental in reservoir characterization, particularly when subsurface rock samples are unavailable. In this study, log data and thin sections were employed to determine the petrophysical properties of the Late Campanian-Maastrichtian Shiranish Formation in the Kirkuk and Dukan area, Kurdistan Region, Iraq. Various approaches were integrated, including the Neutron-Density crossplot for lithology identification, Gamma-ray logs for determining shale volume, and sonic, density, and neutron logs for assessing porosity. The Shiranish Formation exhibits poor to fair porosity, with average values reaching 11.12% from the sonic log, 6.8% from the density log, and 8.4% from the neutron porosity log. Lithologies identified from the Neutron-Density crossplot indicate that the Shiranish Formation is predominantly composed of limestone and marly limestone. The determined shale volume within the examined interval reveals a high level of clay constituents in the lower part of the formation (2655 m-2693 m). The reservoir quality of the Shiranish Formation in the outcrop section is negligible, as evidenced by the thin section samples used in this study.

The study area is the Southern Desert (SD) of Iraq, known for its intensive karst features that are notoriously difficult to image subsurface using reflection seismic survey. Determining the subsurface karst terranes is of extreme importance in the exploration program and mitigation of the associated hazards. This contribution presents the gravity method as an auxiliary method with seismic reflection in detecting subsurface karst forms and determining their precise locations. Appropriate processing and interpretation of gravity data may be extremely helpful in resolving this issue and reducing seismic uncertainty, which is the principal goal of this work. The gravity field of the SD is decomposed into local and regional fields utilizing an upward continuation filter. The residual gravity maps are presented that might be used as an integrated tool in seismic data processing and interpretation, and in mitigating the hazards of the upcoming seismic survey. The near-surface negative anomalies in the SD are mostly linked with karst forms and near-surface density deficiencies. The decomposition is followed by estimating depths to the tops of geological structures using 1D radially averaged power spectrum analyses. A strong relationship between pre-existing exploration wells and positive residual gravity anomalies is found in the study area, indicating that these wells were drilled on structural highs of hydrocarbon interest. The available information on the total drilling depths for three wells shows encouraging results with the estimated depths utilizing the 1D radially averaged power spectrum method. Further, the results show that some wells have been drilled off the crest of the structures of interest. Therefore, this study provides a geophysical means of reconsidering the existing borehole results over relatively shallow structures.

Unit A of the Triassic Kura China Formation has been studied from a productivity assessment point of view in the selected BB-4 well of Bina Bawi Oilfield, Iraqi Kurdistan Region, to identify its productive potential. The study is done based mainly on the available full sets of wireline log data for the gross penetration of 323 m of the unit. The lithology was identified depending on the data from the porosity logs and appeared to be mainly composed of dolomite, anhydritic dolomite, and anhydrite with rare limestones. The data from the Gamma-ray indicated low shale content (less than 10%) at the upper part of the unit, whereas at the middle and lower parts, shale and shale intervals are common. The existing shale in the studied Unit A is mostly distributed as dispersed clay materials between the grains. The porosity of the unit was evaluated depending on the calculated corrected Neutron-Density combination log and showed that the unit is of poor porosity, being on average less than 5%. The permeability in the BB-4 well was obtained from the data of the Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) log and showed a lot of impermeable or poor permeable horizons. Depending on the differences in the shale volume, porosity, and permeability values, three reservoir units were selected for the unit under study. Hydrocarbons with different saturation percentages exist along Unit A of the Kurra Chine Formation in the studied well, and most of the existing hydrocarbons are non-movable (residual hydrocarbons). The calculated net-to-gross (N/G) reservoir, pay, and productive ratios for the studied Unit A collectively in the well BB-4 appeared to be 9.2%, 3.28%, and 3.28%, respectively.

The Cenomanian/Turonian Boundary sediments of the Gulneri Formation are characterized by a 1.5 m thick organic-rich calcareous black shale that can potentially represent the lithostratigraphic expression of the global Ocean Anoxic Event 2 (OAE2). It is bounded by double unconformities, with the underlying dolomitic limestone of the Cenomanian Dokan Formation and with the overlying white-weathered, thinly bedded limestone of the Turonian Kometan Formation. The high-resolution planktic foraminiferal biostratigraphic investigation of the Gulneri Formation reveals three main biozones: Whiteinella archaeocretacea Partial-Range Zone, Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica Taxon-Range Zone, and Dicarinella primitiva-Marginotruncana sigali Interval Zone that constrains it from Latest Cenomanian to late Turonian in age. The characteristics of the planktic foraminiferal lime mudstone, wackestone, and packstone microfacies suggest that the Gulneri Formation was deposited in an euxinic, stagnant, open marine environment of the middle shelf. The occurrence of fish detritus, the increased abundance of the low-oxygen tolerant species belonging to the Heterohelix genus, surface dweller Muricohedbergella, and the disaster opportunist Guembelitria cenomana all indicate that the organic-rich calcareous black shale of the Gulneri Formation is correlated with the OAE2 that is observed widely across the Tethys realm.

The potentiality of the upper part of the Kurra Chine Formation (Late Triassic) for hydrocarbon generation in northern Iraq was assessed using data from the Butmah-15 well. Total organic carbon (TOC) and Rock-Eval pyrolysis analyses were conducted on nine rock samples; biomarker analysis was carried out for two samples, after extraction of the bitumen, to determine the paleodepositional environment conditions. The examined interval has low TOC values (< 0.5 wt.%) and limited potential for hydrocarbon generation. Thermal history modeling results suggest that the high TOC intervals in the lower part started oil generation from the Middle Jurassic (~170 Ma) to the end of the Early Cretaceous (~ 100 Ma), and reached the end of the oil window at the end of the Miocene. Maturity parameter values (biomarkers and Tmax) indicate early to mid-mature organic matter. Normal alkane distribution shows the dominance of short chains over long chains and suggests that the organic matter is mainly of marine origin. C35S/C34S and Pr/Ph ratios suggest that the examined interval was deposited under low oxygen conditions (suboxic-anoxic).

Iraq includes different tectonic zones and different physiographic provinces; accordingly, different types of soils, and erosion types and intensities are developed in different parts of Iraq. There were many attempts to compile a map of soil types in Iraq by different authors, which we mentioned very briefly. The main soil types are alluvial, colluvial, residual, and eolian. Also, a brief description of the physiographic provinces is given. We have presented the active erosion types in Iraq, with a discussion of the reasons for soil erosion and degradation in different parts of Iraq excluding the northern and northeastern parts that belong to the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KRI). The main erosion agents are water and wind. The active erosion types are sheet, rill, and gully erosion; respectively; however, wind erosion cannot be ignored. We also discussed the factors that control soil degradation in Iraq. Moreover, we presented different relevant maps and field photos, which express relevant data about erosion types and damages.

A biostratigraphic comparison was conducted between the offshore and onshore regions of the Gorgan-Dag-Ekerem uplift zone in Turkmenistan and offshore Iran, utilizing published data from the Gorgan Plain in northern Iran. The study focuses on the Pliocene Red-bed, Akchagylian, and Quaternary deposits in the South Caspian Basin. Pliocene deposits hold significant economic and scientific interest due to their commercial reservoir potential beneath thick Quaternary formations. The practical study of Quaternary sediments is crucial for selecting suitable engineering and construction sites for offshore platform installation and identifying safe locations for exploratory wells. Industrial hydrocarbons have also been extracted from the Quaternary deposits (Apsheron stage) in Turkmenistan.
A total of 533 core and drill-cutting samples were analyzed from shallow and deep exploration wells across three onshore and seven offshore structures in Turkmenistan and Iran. This included 161 samples from shallow offshore wells, 209 from deep offshore wells, and 163 from onshore near-coastal structures. Abundant ostracod assemblages were identified, enabling detailed biostratigraphic characterization of the Pliocene Red-bed strata, Akchagylian deposits, and Quaternary formations.
Pliocene deposits exhibited relatively low microfaunal diversity. The Quaternary deposits displayed a rich assemblage of predominantly brackish ostracods, along with euryhaline and freshwater species.

Landforms are fundamental components of landscapes and pivotal elements within geomorphology. The comprehensive classification of landforms necessitates an advanced quantitative methodological approach capable of extracting discernible integral elements and patterns from Digital Elevation Models (DEMs). Identifying these patterns constitutes a crucial initial stage in recognizing and delineating landforms. The main objective of this research is to employ the Geomorphons technique at various scales, including neighborhood sizes of 5x5(3.9 km2), 10x10(15.6 km2), and 25x25(97.6 km2) cells to autonomously categorize Geomorphic units (landforms) derived from 12.5-meter resolution ALOS PALSAR DEM within the SAGA-GIS software framework. Geomorphon is an effective model for characterizing the earth's morphology, encapsulating micro-landscape structures. Subsequently, the landform classes were correlated with landslide susceptibility zones through sophisticated spatial analysis functions in the designated area.
The study area was classified into 10 distinct types of the most prevalent geomorphic units, including flat, valley, slope, foot slope, peak, pit, ridge, hollow, shoulder, and spur. The results indicated that the predominant landform type observed is closely associated with slopes, while the least prevalent is flat terrain. Landform patterns exhibit a strong correlation with natural hazards, particularly landslides. Notably, approximately 100% of the flat regions are situated within low and very low landslide susceptibility zones, while more than 45% of the summit, ridge, shoulder, spur, and slope areas are characterized by high to very high landslide risk zones. The insights gained from this study are valuable for categorizing zones susceptible to landslide challenges. Understanding landforms is a critical parameter applicable to natural calamity assessment and future master planning in the Akre district of northern Iraq.

The regions surrounding Dokan Lake are highly vulnerable to recent climate change, which disrupts ecosystems, hydrological cycles, and vegetation, particularly in water-scarce areas. Thus, this study uses remote sensing techniques, such as Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Vegetation Condition Index (VCI), to monitor vegetation and drought conditions. In order to calculate hydrological parameters that identify changes in the lake's water level from 2014 to 2023 and to assess vegetation changes in the Khdran, Khalakan, Ranya, and Chwarqurna areas that are close to Dokan Lake. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) is another tool used to analyze precipitation patterns and identify the wettest and driest years during this time frame.
Advanced analytical techniques are used in this study, including statistical tools, GIS, and remote sensing. To determine seasonal water levels, hydrological data, including precipitation and water levels, were gathered from the Dokan Dam and processed using ArcGIS (10.7.1) and GraphPad Prism (8.0.2). Vegetation and drought conditions were analyzed using the NDVI and VCI indices. A correlation analysis between water levels and SPI revealed a moderate and statistically significant relationship (P-value < 0.05; P-value = 0.034).
According to the findings, the lake's area fluctuated significantly, with the largest expansion occurring in 2019. Vegetation conditions, as assessed by the VCI index, indicate that extreme drought occurred in 2014 but significantly increased by 2022. Areas with moderate drought remained stable, while regions with mild drought experienced a gradual decrease after 2019. According to SPI analysis, 2019 was a wet year (SPI = 2.22), while 2022 saw a moderate drought (SPI = -1.18). In conclusion, the study highlights the need to consider multiple climate parameters for effective water management and climate change adaptation. The results emphasize the significance of understanding the interaction between hydrology, vegetation, and climate, which is essential for sustainable development in regions vulnerable to climate change.

Clay materials are widely used in the production of cement due to the presence of good amounts of silicon oxide (SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and ferric oxide (Fe2O3) that play an effective role in mixing with limestone to make Portland cement. However, exploring for good specifications of clay has become an important requirement for cement factories in general and in particular in both Bazyan and Takya regions due to the existence of more than five factories producing millions of tons from Sinjar Formation annually. Therefore, two sites were selected: site 1 in the Bazyan area near Kani-Shaya village and site 2 near Takya district. A 2D Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI) is conducted using the Wenner-Schlumberger array to detect clay layers in the Quaternary Sediments. Mineralogical and Geochemical studies are carried out to determine the quality of the detected clay layers. Thirteen clay samples were collected from different locations and depths depending on the results of the 2D ERI by digging 9 trenches to a depth of 12 m as well some other samples were collected in clay layers that appeared on several vertical cliffs of 7 – 10 m high. In addition, the 2D ERI profile identifies a cliff of about 9 m in height on clay layers. Geochemical analysis was carried out on seven clay samples to determine the major and minor element proportions. Six samples were analyzed to determine the grain size and mineral composition by XRD.
The results of the 2D ERI survey showed that there are large quantities of clay bodies in the Quaternary sediments at depths between 2 – 80 m with electrical resistivity ranging between 7 – 11 Ohm.m and the average thickness of the clay layer ranges between 5 – 45 m. The chemical composition analysis indicates the existence of a high ratio of silica, alumina, and iron oxide equal to 65.9 %, 11.66 %, and 4.4 % respectively in the Takya study area and equal to 33.58 – 37.63 %, 9.96 – 9.56 %, and 4.9 – 4.33 % respectively in the Bazyan study area. Grain size analysis shows that the majority is silt size, ranging from 48 to 58%, especially in the trenches, and then clay size ratio, ranging from 36 to 47%. The sand size in both study areas has the lowest ratio, ranging from 4% to 6%. The result is represented by silty clay and silty clay loam, according to the USDA diagram. Eventually, the mineralogical study indicates that the major portion of clay samples is montmorillonite, the minor portions are palygorskite and kaolinite, and the non-clay minerals include quartz, feldspar, and calcite. The result of the integrated studies is the detection of thick clay layers with optimal quality that can be used for several years as a raw material for the cement industry.

This study comprises choosing ten (10) excavated rock slope stations along old Azmar road, on the NE-side of Azmar mountain at Sulaymaniyah, Kurdistan region, NE-Iraq, and the stability of these excavated rock slopes was evaluated by descriptive and quantitative approaches. The selection of the slope stations relies on changes in the discontinuity type, slope steepness and orientation, and failure type. The field data was analyzed to determine its possible type of instability, employing the slope kinematics method by the DIPS v6.008 program, and to verify the stability condition, the Geological Strength Index-slope (GSIslope) system Finally, the joints were geometrically classified, based on the three (3) orthogonal geometric axes. Geometrical classification of joints revealed an ac-joint set, and hko>a, hko>b, hol>c & okl>c joint system. The most prevalent type is of conjugate hko joint system, whereas there are no conjugate joint systems of hol>a & okl>b types. Kinematic analysis showed four failure types, i.e., planar sliding, wedge sliding, flexural, and direct toppling failures. Planar slides may occur on the rock slopes of stations no. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, wedge sliding may occur on the rock slopes of stations no. 1, 8, and 9, flexural and direct toppling may occur on the rock slope. The results of the GSI-slope showed that the rock slopes in stations 3 and 5 are in the completely unstable condition of class no. Five (V), and stations no. 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are in the unstable condition of class four (lV), while the slope in station no. 10 is in a partially stable condition of class three (III).

Assessment of maturity and total organic carbon (TOC) of source rocks is mainly by core rock samples, though requires high techniques. On the other hand, well logs could provide valuable results during less time consumption. Therefore, this work is conducted to classify the maturity and estimate the total organic carbon (TOC) of the Variegated Shale member (Sarir Formation) and Sirte shale Formation (Cretaceous) by applying the Passy Technique. These formations have a thick sequence and recognized a high content of organic materials over the whole Sirte Basin (Libya). Also, the measured well logs data were taken from four wells, which are located in the Hamiemat trough (Eastern Sirte Basin), Libya. In addition, two values of a level of organic metamorphism (LOM) are used based on the documented Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro) of the study area, which is equal to 7 and 11 of the TOC evaluation. Thus, statistical average values of the estimated TOC demonstrate about 1% of the Sirte shale Formation, and they are passed 2% of the Variegated Shale member (Sarir Formation). Moreover, poor to very good potential for source rock classification within the Variegated Shale member and Sirte Shale Formations. Therefore, all the estimated TOC results by well logs fall within the documented and published studies of the source rock potential assessments of the eastern Sirte Basin, which gives validity to the applied TOC assessment technique. In summary, the gamma-ray (GR), interval travel time (ΔT), and resistivity (R) logs are the logs that have been recorded within the exploration wells of the oil fields in the hydrocarbon profile basins. Hence, the utilization of these logs to save time and cost by the Passy technique, which provides reliable results of the TOC and maturity of the source rocks in early exploration stratigraphic plan studies.

Desertification has developed rapidly in recent years due to years of neglect in environmental management, especially in the agriculture and irrigation sectors in the study area (Al-Hay District, Wasit Governorate, Iraq). Several factors have combined to create this problem within the lands of the study area, represented by natural geographical factors, such as climate, soil, water, and natural vegetation. Therefore, it has become necessary to address the phenomenon of desertification in this work, especially after waves of water scarcity, problems of human urban expansion, and droughts that have swept many countries. The current research aims to evaluate the desertification phenomenon by monitoring the changes in the land cover and land use of the study area, as an attempt to develop solutions and proposals that may contribute to the process of reducing the spread of desertification. Integration between remote sensing (RS) techniques and geographic information systems (GIS) is utilized to evaluate desertification and assess the sensitivity of areas to this phenomenon that traditional methods (e, g. direct observation, map interpretation, and field survey) are unable to provide. Supervised and unsupervised classification techniques were utilized to build a geographic information base by analyzing and interpreting the satellite images of the Landsat 8 satellite. The findings demonstrated how crucial it is to integrate RS and GIS while tracking the desertification phenomenon, both inside and outside of the study area. The categorized images are considered appropriate for further research because Kappa coefficients are considered significantly of about more than 0.86.