iklil for Humanity Studies

This research showed the impact of mosques on intellectual and cultural life in Yemen during the era of the Sulayhid state (439-532 AH), as these holy places were considered centers of education and intellectual discussions that had a profound impact on Yemeni society.
The beginning of the emergence and development of mosques in Yemen occurred in the first century AH as places for performing religious rituals and learning Islamic sciences. Then the mosques flourished during the Middle Ages, when they became centers of thought and culture and attracted scholars and learners from various parts of Yemen. The mosques witnessed the holding of seminars and literary discussions that strengthened Yemeni culture.
The curricula in the mosques were distinguished by their diversity. They included the study of Islamic doctrine, jurisprudence, interpretation, and philosophy. Mosques were also a forum for stimulating intellectual discussions on social, political, and religious issues. These discussions in the mosques promoted intellectual tolerance and the exchange of opinions. Mosques also had an impact on several aspects of politics, as mosques were used as platforms. To express political positions and intellectual movements, mosques also formed a fertile environment for the emergence of different political ideas and currents. As for the impact of mosques on the cultural side, mosques contributed to spreading science and culture among members of Yemeni society. They are also considered a forum for interconnection and social interaction between members of society. Mosques also contributed to preserving Yemeni cultural identity and heritage

The research dealt with mosques in the Islamic East (Khorasan and Transoxiana) through the book “The Image of the Earth” by Ibn Hawqal, as he was familiar with the geographers who preceded him, and by virtue of his profession as a merchant that required frequent movement from one country to another, he used to travel to all parts of the earth and loved to see for himself what he read in books and verify the accuracy of the information. He wrote his book in the fourth century AH, which witnessed a broad scientific movement in which sciences flourished, including the science of countries, as the books of geographers appeared to meet the needs of the state in knowing the roads to organize the affairs of the country and knowing the roads leading to Mecca and knowing the caravan stations, as he showed us the passable roads and the difficult roads. He also wanted to show us the extent of the spread of the Islamic religion in the East (Khorasan and Transoxiana) through his description of the location of mosques in the countries to which he traveled and the extent of Muslims’ adherence to their religion and their commitment to performing the duties. He explained to us the strength of Islam in these countries despite the few The number of Muslims in it.

Our research، titled (The Efforts of the Historian Salah al-Din al-Munajjid) (d. 2010 AD/1431 AH)، aims to preserve the heritage and history of Muslims in the rules of examining and indexing Arabic manuscripts and their dictionaries of printed manuscripts.
There are men in the Islamic nation، may God grant them success in preserving the heritage of the Islamic nation. The historian Salah al-Din al-Munajjid was one of those scholars and historians who through their efforts were able to preserve the heritage of the Islamic nation by writing some volumes or dictionaries or indexing all manuscripts in volumes that are kept in scientific libraries. We pray to God to grant us success in recording the efforts of the historian. The late Billah Salah al-Din al-Munajjid..

Decoration is an essential element in Islamic manuscripts in general and historical manuscripts in particular. Scholars and scribes in ancient times were interested in decorating manuscripts and employed it to add beauty and splendor to the Qur’an and manuscripts. The first time it was used in the Qur’an, the Qur’an was decorated with very beautiful decoration. It took various forms and expressed the religious and cultural values of Muslims. It also contributed to These decorations demonstrated the skill of the Arab calligrapher at that time, as they demonstrated the aesthetics of the manuscript. They were of different types and shapes, each of which was used in a specific place and in a specific manuscript. They were of different types, such as geometric decorations. This type relied on regular geometric shapes such as squares, triangles, and star shapes, and these shapes were repeated in the formation of shapes -The decorative one An example of this is the Holy Qur’an preserved in the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo. We observed the elaborate geometric decoration on various pages of the Qur’an, and the floral decorations. This type of decoration is derived from the leaves of trees and plants and is designed in various realistic shapes. An example of this is the floral decorations found on a book manuscript. Al-Aghani by Abu Faraj Al-Isfahani, which is preserved in the Egyptian House of Books. This manuscript is full of colorful plant decorations that give it a unique beauty, and animal decorations that depict different animals and are specifically used in Islamic manuscripts and written decorations. The Muslim artist excelled in decorating the Qur’ans and manuscripts. All of these decorations have shown us The ingenuity of scholars and calligraphers in decorating the pages of the Qur’an and Islamic manuscripts.

The Sulayhid state, which was established in the year ( 439h\532h-1047m\1137m) and at its head, the preacher Abu Al-Hasan Ali bin Muhammad Al-Sulayhi, was interested in agricultural activity, which represents the main tributary of the country’s economy and the mainstay of its wealth. It realized that strengthening the kingdom’s entity and the success of its policy this cannot be achieved without developing the resources of wealth. Therefore, it made diligent efforts to achieve that goal by following policies and economic measures that sought to improve the agricultural aspect and develop it so that it could finance the state treasury, secure an appropriate standard of living for society, and increase its well-being and prosperity. So it tried to overcome the obstacles that It faced due to the mountainous nature of Yemen, some of whose reigions were characterized by a scarcity of agricultural land, through the establishment of agricultural terraces on most of the mountain slopes and efforts to expand the area of arable land.

There is great interest on the part of many institutions and bodies to rehabilitate manuscripts, especially in an era dominated by digital technologies, which has led many public and private institutions, universities and institutes to adopt a new concept to protect manuscripts from disappearance and make them available to the largest number of beneficiaries, using modern technologies that have contributed to a great extent. It helped overcome many problems and presented many alternatives.

An important part of a student’s life in seeking knowledge is that he obtain approval from his scholars, whom he sees as his imams in narrating the hadith. Therefore, some scholars advised caution against adopting the narration of the narrators from the Prophet (may God’s prayers and peace be upon him and his family). And the immoral people and those who hate the Imams (peace be upon them) and the righteous scholars, and among the scholars used to emphasize the journey and mention its virtues, to sit in a group run by the most famous and trustworthy scholars to write down what they really mentioned and to permit narration from them with approval. These circles and gatherings, in which he also dictated, are considered among the noblest levels of learning. (Knowledge, and scholars have mentioned this in their books, such as their saying, quoting what Yahya bin Aktham mentioned after a dialogue with Harun al-Rashid about the importance of councils and what is said in them on the authority of the Prophet (may God’s prayers and peace be upon him and his family): We die and disappear, and the scholars remain for the rest of time.) And in our hands One of the important Ijazah that we are in the process of achieving is tagged ( Ijazah of the scholar Sayyid Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Muhammad al-Bulaidi al-Hasani al-Tunisi al-Maghribi al-Maliky) (d. 1176 AH) by the honorable Sheikh Ahmed Rahouma al-Tarabulsi (he was lived in the 12 century AH), and this Ijazah is the support for the narration of the hadith by Sheikh Ahmed Rahuma after... Reading from it: in Mawta Malik, the summary of Sheikh Khalil, and Al-Zarqani’s explanation, the summary of Sheikh Khalil, and the treatise of Ibn Abi Zaid Al-Qayrawani, and as for Al-Baydawi’s interpretation, it is authentic.
Al-Bukhari permitted it without reading it, justifying this by saying that some scholars had permitted it before that, and we have explained this with special discussions on Ijazah and its types

History is a science of great value and great dangers, its lights throughout the ages do not go out, and its many benefits to those with insight are countless. The world's libraries are full of many things that have been written by scholars of the history of this nation, and many of them are still in manuscript form that only a few can benefit from. Verifying manuscripts is a high science that can only be done by those who have been given patience for knowledge and the ability to study texts. Verifying manuscripts is also adding a new source to the scientific sources from which students, researchers, and men of science draw, especially valuable works that have been forgotten and covered by dust for a long time. For this reason, I wanted to verify the manuscript of the text of the histories by its author Muhammad Saeed Abdul Aleem Shahri Zadeh to add something to the library of Arab Islamic heritage, as the manuscript included a long period of time that extended from the beginning of creation to the Ottoman Empire during the time of the author, who sought to mention most of the ruling dynasties that ruled the world at that time, following the method of abbreviation in mentioning them, and referring to his book, The Great History, to know the details. The author did not follow the historical sequence in mentioning historical events, and did not divide the manuscript into chapters, but rather relied on the narrative method, which caused confusion and a defect in mentioning the events. Although we did not find a personal biography of the author Shahri Zadeh, we tried to give a clear picture of the author’s era.

I know for sure that the Islamic Sharia is universal with the certainty of the saying of the Almighty (And We have not sent you except to all people as good tidings and warners) and by saying: (Say, O people, that the Messenger of God is with you all) as it is known that it is the only universal Sharia according to the saying of the peace of God Peace and blessings of God be upon him (Atit Khumsa was given to one of the previous prophets... and the Prophet was sent to a special tribe and sent to all people
One of the results of the universality of the Islamic Shari'a and its universality: - The universality of the jurisprudence and the unity of this universality, because the universality of the religion requires the universality of the Shariats, and the universality of the religion requires the universal unity of the Shariats, the invention of my permission is the universality of the Islamic Shari'a, the expansion of the fiqhs, so that the life of all people in this universe extends to the Day of Resurrection. Muslims and non-Muslims, (Muslims) clearly, (and non-Muslims):- So and so the provisions of the Islamic Shari'ah are valid for non-Muslims as well, and this validity is proven by experience and practice, and that is why we believe that the rest of the nations are not the same as the Islamic Shari'a Al-Maishiya, but they are valid throughout the ages. The entire world today and it is clear in their livelihoods and rulings, and since the lives of people were infinite in their developments until the Day of Resurrection and the texts of Islamic law were finite:- there must have been multiple methods for deriving the rulings of the developments of people's actions from these texts, which is what is called the rulings of the branches of jurisprudence. And the sciences called jurisprudence were the multiple principles of jurisprudence, and the differences in the trust of these principles were partial, in terms of generalities, details and rules, and the wideness of the principles and the diversity of the many branches and the diversity of the findings of the most recent developments of people across time and space.

Our ancestors left us a huge intellectual heritage estimated at millions of manuscripts. Scientists worked to publish and revive it since the age of printing، taking advantage of the rules set by ancient Muslim scholars in verifying texts. They followed a special approach to investigation، and the researchers who verified them followed suit. However، the science of investigation has made great strides as a result of the accumulation of experiences. The emergence of a new approach to investigation، known as the scientific method of investigation. It is one of the sciences that has arisen and developed recently، although its historical roots are ancient. It has been called (the investigation of texts) or (the investigation of manuscripts or heritage). It codified the sciences، knowledge، and literature of the Muslims، especially because of the sciences contained in the manuscripts.
A manuscript is a book that was written by hand and was not printed. The scholars differed as to whether it is considered a manuscript. A group of scholars said that a manuscript is a book that is a century or more old، so it is considered a manuscript. Another group says that it is “50 years old” because time has no bearing on the value. Others differed. Between an ancient manuscript and a modern manuscript. Whatever is more than a century old is considered ancient، otherwise it is a modern manuscript.
The methods for investigating heritage and manuscripts are among the religious and historical sciences، which have their own approach and method. The literary and scientific cultural heritage of any nation is the wealth of knowledge، and the gateway to serving and acquiring knowledge in all scientific fields، such as the sciences of language، literature، poetry، jurisprudence، interpretation، mathematics، astronomy، medicine، etc.، and since investigation is based on its rules. ، and its recognized scientific controls، is the way to produce the manuscript Al-Mukhtar has come to light، as it is considered a path of knowledge، in addition to what distinguishes the research، which is a brief overview، or a passing look at the investigation in the Islamic world in general and Iraq in particular in terms of the components of this manuscript، the paper and the type of ink with which the manuscript was written، in addition to the types of what was written on it. The manuscript consists of lavash، ceramics، bones، boards، leather، papyrus and cardboard، arrangement and assembly of pages، binding، underlining and stylization، decoration، trimming and binding or binding..

There is no doubt that the Arab-Islamic heritage is a precious wealth. It reflects the glory and glory of the nation, and it represents its civilization, history, thought, science, and scientific life. Therefore, it has received the interest and care of Muslim scholars, and manuscripts are considered among the material heritage remains that man has left behind from the beginning. They are a living witness to scientific life throughout ancient times and what it has reached. They are a link and a meeting point between ancestors and subsequent generations, in order to benefit from... The future is from the creativity of their great ancestors in the various important sciences and arts that they achieved in completing their research and scientific works.

One of the greatest things left to us by our ancestors is the cultural legacy represented by a huge amount of intellectual heritage that they created for us and for which they spent a lot of effort, time and money. It was necessary for us to take care of this legacy, preserve it and benefit from it. Hence the importance of this research, which came in three sections.
The first topic: The efforts of the Iraqi school in indexing manuscripts, a historical overview. The second topic: Kokis Awad and Mikhail Awad (their translation and intellectual production). The third topic was devoted to: Kokis Awad and Mikhail Awad’s approach to cataloging manuscripts

Manuscripts are a treasure of the Islamic nation; they represent the primary sources of information about the early Islamic eras, and the living memory of a nation whose history has extended for more than fifteen centuries, and they are an important part of the precious intellectual heritage left to us by the ancients, and they are the most valuable elements of our heritage, as they are the link between the past and the present.
The factors for the spread of these manuscripts around the world were many, as the occupation of Islamic countries was the main reason for their transfer to many countries, especially foreign ones, and a portion of these manuscripts were sold in ignorance of their material and scientific value, in addition to the efforts of Western orientalists to buy some of them, and then transfer them and sell them or deliver them to their countries, all of which contributed to the scattering of Arabic manuscripts in various parts of the world.
The countries in which Arabic manuscripts spread in the world are divided into three sections: a section distributed in Arab countries and preserved in public and private offices, a section present in Islamic countries such as Turkey, Iran, Pakistan and others, while the third section is present in foreign countries such as the United States, England, France, Spain and other foreign countries.
The types of manuscripts created by the hand of the Arab writer are many and their topics varied in various fields of knowledge (such as religion, medicine, engineering, astronomy, chemistry, literature, language and others). This research explains the importance of Arabic manuscripts, and their prominent impact on the progress of the West, and how they were able to benefit from these manuscripts, by translating them into their languages and teaching them in their universities for several centuries, so they had a major role in their progress in particular, and the prosperity of human civilization as a whole.

Since ancient times, ancient man realized his need for a garment to cover his naked body and protect him from the changing climate fluctuations that he experienced in ancient times. Tree leaves were the first material he used as clothing, and over time he learned to use animal skins and wool. The types of clothing reflected some intellectual and magical concepts, in addition to their harmony with the climate and the nature of economic conditions during successive ages. The soil of Mesopotamia was distinguished by its fertility and the diversity of its crops. Its vital geographical location relative to the regions of the ancient Near East and the invention of agriculture played a major role in the economic aspect, as they made it a commercial and industrial center with a diverse economy, with human cadres available that were able to harness nature, invest its resources, secure plant and animal raw materials, and benefit from them in various industries, including the textile industry. Cuneiform texts from the Middle Babylonian era referred to various types of textiles and specialists in the weaving profession, both men and women, such as the knotter, the weaver, and others. They also referred to the workshops and houses in which they worked, whether they were affiliated with the religious economic institution represented by In the temple or the official institution belonging to the palace, the ancient Iraqi knew the tools for the textile industry, such as the spindle, the loom, and others, and learned to extract colors in their various spectra and gradations and to make the dyes with which he colored his clothes and various pieces of fabric

The relationship of the Abbasid Caliphate with the Ghaznavid and Ghurid emirates was characterized by being friendly, as the sultans of the two emirates were keen to give a stamp of legitimacy to their rule. This matter could not be done unless the Abbasid Caliph sent an imitation of the rulers of the two emirates. This imitation gained them prestige in the hearts of their subjects, and the reason that led to the improvement of relations between the Abbasid Caliphate and the emirate. Ghaznawiyyah and Ghuriyah have compatible religious and political goals.
In view of their common interests, friendly relations with the Caliphate continued throughout the rule of the two Emirates. There is no doubt that the basis on which the Caliphate’s policy was based in this direction was the continuation of the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in spreading Islam in India and their opposition to forces hostile to the Caliphate. This was also the case with the Sultans of the two Emirates, as they were keen to perpetuate relations. With the center of the caliphate, they were meeting their demands to approve and remove the rulers and providing them with details about their conquests in India.
The research was divided into an introduction, a conclusion, and two sections. The first included the correspondence of the Abbasid Caliphate with the Ghaznavids, as it was revealed through the research the strength and durability of the relationship between the two parties, as the legitimate caliphate was granted to the Ghaznavid rulers by ruling Khorasan after the fall of the Samanids, and the relationship between them was strengthened until the sultans of the emirate became their representatives and completely obeyed the orders of the Abbasid caliphs. This was greatly reflected in the military campaigns to open large areas in the name of the Caliphate, based on the encouragement of the Caliphate. This study included the texts of those communications and the solid foundations they contained in the relationship between the two parties.
As for the second section, it included the correspondence of the Abbasid Caliphate with the Ghurid Emirate, as it included the texts of the letters exchanged between the two parties and clarification of the foundations of that relationship that were stated in those correspondence, as it was shown through the research that the relationship between the Ghurid Emirate and the Abbasid Caliphate was a good relationship, characterized by friendliness and complete obedience to the Caliph’s command. The Ghurid emirate stood against the Khwarezmians, especially during the era of Caliph Al-Nasir li-Din Allah, who used this emirate as a force to pressure the Khwarezmians to avoid their danger and thwart their plans to occupy Baghdad.

Under President Erdogan, Turkey is still meeting with Europe within the broad European house around common controls, principles and values and by applying for full membership with the European Union by strengthening democratic life, developing human rights, institutionalizing a free market economy and consolidating contemporary life standards at all levels.
In this research, we will seek to answer the following question, namely, does Turkey still play a pivotal and influential role in the European continent, which makes its accession to the European Union a strategic choice? Or are the transformations and crises with France and Greece and the economic crises afflicting the European Union countries, Or is the Syrian crisis and its repercussions on Turkey making it dominate the Turkish desire to join the European Union? Therefore, is Turkey (Erdogan) trying to shift towards other options that make Turkey look for more appropriate options so that Turkey’s strategic options become an alternative to the strategy of joining the European Union?
In this context, the Turkish strategy towards the European Union will be reviewed under President Erdogan, the development of the relationship between Turkey and the European Union, the implications of Turkey's accession to the European Union, the Turkish foreign and domestic policy, and the extent of Turkey's political and economic influence and power at the international level.
The determinants of Turkey's accession to the European Union will also be discussed, which are the geographical determinant, the demographic determinant, the religious factor, and the most important political problems with Europe, such as the Cyprus and the Armenian issue, the Kurdish problem, and the economic determinant. The most important relationship between the European Union and Turkey is the issue of Turkey's accession to the European Union. With the fluctuation of relations between the two parties in this field, sometimes by accepting to enter into the negotiations to join the European Union and offering difficult and almost impossible conditions for Turkey to join it, and sometimes by evaluating the requirements that Turkey meets, rejecting some of them, accepting some of them partially, and presenting new demands in different ways.
In this context, President Erdoğan’s foreign policy is about communication and continuity across time stages, seeking to achieve its goals. At the same time, Erdoğan is trying to play a prominent, influential and distinguished regional role through the new foreign policy orientations towards the Middle East. This does not mean that he has abandoned and neglected the issue of accession to the European Union. Rather, he believes that this goal will only be achieved through Turkey's exercise of a central regional and international role, which gives Turkey strength in the issue of its accession to the European Union, an international and central dimension to it in the political and economic aspects and influence at the regional and international level, and this means a policy of balance to give the greatest ability to maneuver its policy Foreign affairs towards regional and international issues, in its relationship with Europe and in the Middle East and Africa

Economic history occupied a distinguished position among the branches of diverse historical studies since the beginning of the last century, which is still continuing its many achievements in historical research, because most of the activities of human societies are linked to the economic reality, and these studies are examples of this type of studies, it dealt with the problem of the land of Sufis in the era of the message in the civil era and its importance lies in it showed the ability of the Prophet's state to organize and respond to the change and change of conditions, as well as the forms of land tenure, management and taxes imposed on it shows the position of the Islamic State on the spoil and the spoil.
The jurisprudential sources, as well as books of biography and history that dealt with the definition of the pattern of land ownership in the Islamic concept to link the way the land enters the Islamic state, and the pattern of ownership, and classified in the light of that link the land to several types, including the lands of Sufis, was the Sufi Messenger of God the first beginning of the knowledge of Muslims this legislative form, and determined Sufi Messenger of God, the provisions contained in the Holy Quran that showed the legitimacy of his rights and his disposition . Regarding the liberated lands, he expressed his rights from the Sufis in the books that he sent to a number of delegations of tribes and princes, and what he applied to the land of Bani al-Nadir, Khaybar and Fadak, where he did not divide this land, but kept it to cover his own expenses and meet some public needs .

The Iraqi-Kuwaiti crisis of 1990-1991 is considered a watershed event in the history of the region and the world because of the widespread destruction it caused to both countries. It generated negative repercussions on the overall Arab-Arab relations, clear divisions in international policies, and the long-term political, economic, and social effects it left behind. Jordan was at the forefront of those countries affected by this global event by virtue of its proximity to Iraq and its economic and political ties with it. Therefore, this crisis received great attention and continuous follow-up from Jordanian newspapers, especially the state of tension that prevailed during the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and escalated, as Jordanian newspapers expressed their position in a clear manner. She was clear about the crisis in what was consistent with the interests of her government and her country. She followed the developments of events, conferences and negotiations that took place before and after the crisis.
The year 1990 was chosen as the beginning of the research. Because it was the year Iraq occupied Kuwait, while 1991 was the end of the search. Being the year in which coalition forces attacked Iraq, forcing it to withdraw from Kuwait. In fact, Jordanian newspapers had many positions on the Iraqi-Kuwaiti crisis and its repercussions, so this research attempts to answer several questions, perhaps the most important of which is: What is the position of Jordanian newspapers on the Iraqi-Kuwaiti disputes prior to the crisis? Was its position neutral or biased towards the Iraqi side? What is its view of the decisions of the Arab League and the United Nations regarding this crisis? How did you monitor its changes? Why did you take a negative position on the popular uprising in Iraq in 1991 as one of the repercussions of this crisis? These and other questions the researcher will try to answer in the context of this research, which I divided into four sections.
In the first section, I dealt with the most important reasons and factors that led to the deterioration of relations between the two countries, the newspapers’ position on them, their vision of the crisis, and the solutions they put forward before the crisis aggravated. While the second section focused on the newspapers’ position on the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait, which was represented by support and assistance to the Iraqi side under the pretext of defense. On his economic interests, the third section was concerned with the American attack on Iraq and the position of the newspapers on it, which strongly condemned it and considered it an American-Gulf-Zionist conspiracy, while the fourth section shed light on the repercussions of the crisis on the internal situation in Iraq (the outbreak of the popular uprising and the position of the Jordanian newspapers on it).
The study relied on a variety of important sources, most notably Jordanian newspapers. Being a daily record of events, it is also primarily concerned with this research. The most prominent of these newspapers are Al-Dustour newspaper, Al-Rai newspaper, Sawt Al-Shaab newspaper, and Akhbar Al-Osboa newspaper, in addition to the research being based on a number of university dissertations and dissertations, Arabic books, and published scientific research.

The study deals with the social conditions of the religious minorities of Jews and Christians in the Sanjak of Jerusalem during the period of direct Ottoman rule throughout the eighteenth century AD, including the French campaign at the end of it, before the governor of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha, in 1831 AD, took control of the Sanjak and the Levant for the next decade. The study aims to explain the nature of their social life under the rule of the Ottoman governors and their relationship in detail, whether within each religion and between its sects, whether the relationship between the Jewish and Christian minorities, then the relations between them and the Muslim majority. We will also touch on what was caused by the French campaign against the Levant led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799 AD. It affected the conditions of these minorities and their social relations.
We have followed the historical approach in extrapolating the events and the descriptive approach to analyze and treat them and reach scientific results that are far from bias and courtesy. The study was divided into three axes: firstly, the relationship between the religious minorities in the Sanjak of Jerusalem and the position of the Ottoman administration towards them. It includes the relationships of the sects within the minority, then the relationship of the minorities with each other. Secondly, the relationship between Muslims and religious minorities in Sandjak, and thirdly, the impact of the French campaign on their social conditions and on their relations with the Muslim majority. The study reached important and accurate results, the most important of which are:
Disputes were a feature of the relations between religious minorities and their sects in Jerusalem during the Ottoman era, and the state’s position was unstable as a result of the corruption of its officials and governors and the interference of foreign countries.
Muslim relations with minorities were tolerant in terms of freedom of belief, worship, protection of holy places, and work, but they began to deteriorate since the end of the eighteenth century. Muslims treated Jews with greater tolerance because most of them emigrated with them from Europe, while they considered Christians to be sects loyal to enemies where European countries intervened. To protect them, which exposed them to attacks from soldiers and common Muslims.
The French campaign worsened relations between Muslims and religious minorities, and they were considered to be cooperating with the campaign because Napoleon relied on them. The Jews were subjected to persecution despite their loyalty to the Ottoman state, and the Christians of Jerusalem were also exposed to Muslim attacks on monks and churches, especially Catholics and Franciscans, as it appears that some priests were corresponding with the campaign. .
Introduction to research:
The research addresses the study of the network of social relations between the various religious sects in the Sanjak of Jerusalem in the Ottoman era throughout the eighteenth century until the advent of Napoleon Bonaparte’s campaign against Egypt and the Levant and its impact on these relations. It also addresses the position of the Ottoman administration towards religious minorities, and the impact of the French campaign on the conditions of minorities. And their relationship with each other.
Importance: The importance of the study lies in the fact that it sheds light on the social relations between the various components of Jerusalemite society, especially the relationship between the religious minorities in the city of Jerusalem in the Ottoman era, in addition to the fact that the study details the nature of the social relations between the different sects in light of the contradiction in the narratives between the sources of the religious minorities and their historians and Islamic sources.
Objectives of the study: The study aims to give a clear idea of the social situation of religious minorities in the Sanjak of the Covenant during the Ottoman era and the injustices to which they were exposed, in addition to distinguishing between the different relationships, whether within each religion or between the three religions. It also aims to highlight the impact of the Crusade on social relations between various religious minorities.
Study problem: The study focuses on the problems that religious minorities in the region suffered during the Ottoman era, which were caused by governors, notables, and soldier commanders, and which were manifested in daily life, work, dress, and their role in the local community.
Methodology: The historical methodology was used to track the events and the descriptive and analytical method in treating and refuting them.

The emergence of the Seljuks is a turning point in the history of the Islamic world since the last quarter of the fourth century AH, and they began to build their strength and then expand and move towards forming their relations with the Abbasid Caliphate and aspiring to seize it, and this happened to them in the year (447 AH(
The Islamic Caliphate in the Abbasid era in Iraq, especially during that period, witnessed major events, in which the general conditions were characterized by chaos and turmoil, as a result of the tyranny of the Seljuks to rule and the prevention of the Abbasid Caliphate from playing its role in supervising the management of state affairs, which led to the corruption and deterioration of the political, economic and social conditions and their deterioration due to the preoccupation with The Seljuk sultans faced conflict and competition for power, and the Arab countries, especially Iraq, turned into a battlefield and acts of looting and destruction, which led to the draining of the capabilities of the Islamic nation and weakening its capabilities to confront these external and internal dangers.

The army is the most important pillar for the establishment of the states in Yemen, and as a result of the multiplicity of states that ruled Yemen, its elements were multiple, and most of the Yemeni army was an irregular tribal army, and the tribes were always in conflict with each other. The army of the Sulayhid state was distinguished by the fact that its elements consisted of the sons of the Yemeni tribes who entered into the obedience of King Ali al-Sulayhi and declared their loyalty to him and their adoption of the Ismaili doctrine. Its military units and formations did not differ from what was prevalent in the Arab Islamic army at that time. In addition to the types of combat weapons known at that time in the Islamic world, the military methods and fighting arts of the army were diverse and different, depending on the nature and circumstances of the battles it was fighting.

When you write about a topic related to the Ottomans - we must know that the beginning of modern history begins with the Ottoman expansion in the Arab countries, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, and when we talk about reforms in the Ottoman Empire, we must know that the Ottoman Empire was at the height of its power in the sixteenth century in all The states that controlled it, however, weakened in the eighteenth century. The Arabs of the East accepted Ottoman rule willingly at the beginning. When the Ottoman state weakened, the strength of the local cliques and the ruling markets grew at its expense and took control of the affairs of the Ottoman states. These ruling cliques filled the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries with events. Domestic and external crises.
The Ottoman Empire made great efforts to restore the unity of the state under clear central rule by eliminating those ruling fanaticisms. Just as the Sublime Porte made huge efforts to reorganize the state on the basis of its modernity by introducing Western administrative, economic and social systems into various state facilities, but these efforts and trends were subjected to many setbacks caused by reactionary forces in the Ottoman Empire, and the major countries that were raving that they were working to adopt However, the Ottoman Empire did not allow the introduction of any reforms unless these reforms were in line with its colonial goals in the provinces of the Ottoman Empire.
These contradictions helped to emerge several reformist philosophies in the second half of the twentieth century in the Ottoman Empire, some of which called for an Islamic university, and some of which were attached to nationalist Turanist ideas. Under the factors of mistrust between Muslims and Christians, signs of the crisis between the Arabs and the nationalist Turks also began to crystallize in the major clash between the Arab movement and the ruling Turkish Union and Progress Association in Istanbul.

The term media has become popular recently as a product of the civilization of the era and its modern communication capabilities, but this does not mean that the media is a new social and communication phenomenon. Rather, it goes back to the beginnings of the stages of human development, but it was not called by this name. Rather, its concepts and practical applications were present in simple primary media that developed with the development of man and the increase in his requirements, achieving its goals stemming from the needs of humanity throughout the ages. Due to the importance of the media, we note that no country, force or thought can spread its thought, call and beliefs except through a means through which it can communicate with all its components and categories. Accordingly, these forces must work to mobilize the masses and win them over to a specific thought, belief or opinion, and we can metaphorically call these forces the media. Imam Hussein (peace be upon him) was one of those who believed in the role of the means of communication and purposeful media in exposing and laying bare the forces of evil and aggression, refuting their falsehoods, and revealing the secrets of their souls. He also believed that the honest word of truth must find a place in the ears of falsehood. Therefore, he worked tirelessly to proclaim his call after he saw that truth was not being practiced and falsehood was not being forbidden, and after he was not convinced of the legitimacy of the rule and the competence of those in charge of it. He began to present his resounding and thunderous arguments, striking the ears of his enemies with them and silencing their tongues, at a time when silence was golden, because the opposing party was relying on the logic of force, deception, and reversing the facts. However, the arrows of the Yazidis quickly turned back on them, and the lies of their media were exposed to everyone, so Islamic public opinion became angry with them after the killing of Hussein (peace be upon him). Yazid did not continue after that for more than three years, due to The uprisings and revolutions that swept the Umayyad rule and undermined their entity, and they became a thing of the past. This matter, of course, did not happen by chance or out of nowhere, but rather all of this happened due to the purposeful Husseini media, as well as the positions of Al-Aqila Zainab (peace be upon her) and her nephew Imam Sajjad (peace be upon him) and the rest of the captives, who witnessed the bloody Battle of Karbala with all its chapters and details, so they revealed to public opinion the crimes of the Yazidi war, and they did not leave an opportunity without seizing it in order to expose the crimes of the Umayyads and refute their falsehoods and expose the falsehood of their media, which caused a violent shock in the souls of the people, and their conciliatory position with the Umayyads was turned upside down.

The rule of the Islamic Mamluk dynasty in India began in the year (602 AH / 1206 AD) when Qutb al-Din Aybak, commander of the armies of Sultan Muhammad al-Ghuri, seized power for himself after the death of his master, Sultan Muhammad al-Ghuri, and the demise of the Ghurid state due to the conflict between the princes. The Mamluk Sultan Aybak made Delhi the capital of his state and his family ruled for more than eighty years.
The importance of studying India in the era of the Qutb al-Din Aibak family and his successors comes from the political, economic, military, social and urban achievements they made in that era.
The subject of the research touched on the social and urban aspects through what was preserved for us by sources and references related to the era of the Islamic Sultanate, through which we learned the history of the sultans and the princes of this family that ruled India for more than eighty years. The rule of the sultans was characterized by the establishment of justice and equality and the redress of grievances among the people. Their capital, Delhi, also embraced the scholars. And historians from all over the Islamic world, especially after the Mongols occupied the capital of science and scholars, Baghdad, in the year 656 AH.
These scholars had an effective role in spreading science and knowledge and carrying out the tasks of building schools, mosques, and zawiyas, which are considered a manifestation of the Islamic heritage, the remains of which are still present to this day, including, for example, the Quwwat al-Islam Mosque and its minaret, which is called the Qutb Minaret, which reached a height of more than seventy meters.
The study included two sections, the first section: the social life in brief for each sultan of the Qutb al-Din Abik family.
As for the second section: We dealt with the urban aspect of that time period, which is considered a shining sign of creativity that Islamic civilization contributed to other civilizations due to the aesthetic manifestations it carried in art and construction.
As for the sources and references that were relied upon in preparing this research, we mention the journey of Ibn Battuta, Tabaqat Nasiri by Al-Jawzjani, Nuzhat Al-Khawatir by Al-Hasani, The Concise Encyclopedia of Islamic History by Abu Saeed Al-Masry, and The Paths of Vision in the Kingdoms of Al-Amsar by Al-Omari.

This study aims to explain the concept of Orientalism and its specific definition - the study of Islam by non-Muslims - and then we delve into studying the history of Orientalism, its motives, goals and effects on Islamic society, especially intellectual, cultural, social, economic, and political. We also shed light on the various schools of Orientalism and the goals of those schools. We also discussed the various approaches of Orientalism, and the effects that Orientalism had on Islamic society, and we focused in this topic on distorting the image of Arabs and Muslims.

This study addresses an important issue in modern political history by shedding light on a delicate moment of time for a society whose hearts are yearning and aching. Why not? Every Arab and Muslim person has a concern in the situation of Arab Palestine. The goal of the study is to shed light on the official and popular positions taken by the Arab nations on the Palestinian issue in general and the uprisings and protests that the Palestinian people have carried out against the Zionist entity in particular. I broke the study up into numerous chapters to accomplish this, each of it focused on the official and popular positions of the Arab nations of Egypt, Syria, and the Kingdom of Jordan. The study concluded that these countries had acknowledged the illegitimacy of the setting up of the Zionist entity and supported the Palestinians' right to protection. This is for several considerations, including religious considerations, as they are part of the Islamic nation and consider the land of Palestine as part of the Islamic land, taking into account the Arab national security aspect and harmful to their economic interests.

From pre-Islamic poetry, there are poems that were known among people as “the Seven Hanging Poems” and “the Hanging Poems” and “the Golden Poems” and “the Necklaces”, because the narrators claimed that the Arabs chose them from among all pre-Islamic poetry, so they wrote them in gold water on Coptic, then hung them on the Kaaba in admiration of them and praise for mentioning them, and some of them remained until the day of the conquest, and some of them were destroyed by a fire that struck the Kaaba before Islam. I did not find among the printed or handwritten resources that have reached us a single resource that mentioned that when the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) conquered Mecca in the eighth year of the Hijra, and ordered the destruction of the idols and statues that were there and the obliteration of the pictures that were there, he found a single hanging poem or part of a hanging poem or any other poem that was found written and hung on the corners of the Kaaba or on its curtains. I also did not find in the news of the construction of the Kaaba any news indicating that they hung the hanging poems on the Kaaba when they rebuilt and reconstructed it. If those poems had been hung, the narrators would not have remained silent about them and completely ignored them. Moreover, the people of the news who referred to the fire that struck the Kaaba, which led to its reconstruction, never referred to the burning of all or part of the hanging poems in this fire. If they had been present and hung on the Kaaba as they claimed, they would not have remained silent about mentioning this important event. The research includes several titles, including those who confirm the hanging and their evidence and those who deny the hanging

Artificial intelligence represents the most important basic output and has many uses in the military, industrial, economic, philosophical, service and cognitive applications, and is expected to open the door to innovations. There are no limits to what brings about a radical change in human life, as it comes with development. The massive and accelerating technological transformations that the world is witnessing in the field of artificial intelligence will be the engine of progress, growth and prosperity during the next few years, as philosophy is considered the basis for the development of artificial intelligence because it helps in identifying questions and problems. That must be solved, and helps analyze and interpret the results reached by artificial intelligence The research plan included an introduction and included two sections. The first section: on the term artificial intelligence. It included two topics: the first: defining artificial intelligence, and the second: relating to the fields of artificial intelligence. The second topic: artificial intelligence and its impact on contemporary philosophy