Ashur Journal for Legal and Political Studies

This research aims to present a legal study on the issue of physical assaults against police officers, as one of the important topics in ensuring that security personnel are able to perform their duties within a legal framework that guarantees their physical safety while carrying out such tasks. The significance of this study stems from the increasing security challenges and the growing risks faced by members of the security forces, which necessitates examining the adequacy of legal provisions in protecting this category.
The study addresses the various forms of physical assaults to which police officers are exposed and clarifies the scope of criminalization and the prescribed penalties. It concludes that, despite its importance, the criminal protection afforded to members of the Internal Security Forces still suffers from several legislative shortcomings, which negatively affect efforts to reduce assaults directed against them. Accordingly, the study presents a set of recommendations aimed at contributing to the development and enhancement of the legal framework governing criminal protection

This study examines the legislative framework governing the allocation of reserved public positions through a comparative analysis between Iraq and Egypt, considering it as one of the exceptions to the principles of equality and equal opportunity in access to public employment. The research is grounded in the premise that the general rule in public appointment is open competition based on competence and merit. However, the legislature may intervene, for humanitarian, social, or political reasons, to establish a special system under which certain positions are reserved for specific groups, such as persons with disabilities, families of martyrs, and individuals dismissed for political reasons, with the aim of achieving social justice, restoring dignity, and providing compensation for past harms.
The study concludes that the system of reserved positions constitutes a legitimate exceptional mechanism when it is based on clear and objective justifications and regulated within a coherent legislative framework that balances the requirements of social justice with the principles of efficiency and the public interest. It also emphasizes the necessity of unifying and refining the dispersed legal provisions governing this system in both Iraq and Egypt, in order to ensure clarity, prevent misuse, and enhance consistency with the constitutional principles governing public employment.

Proof constitutes a cornerstone in the administration of justice, as the absence of evidentiary support renders a right unenforceable and deprives its holder of effective judicial protection. The rapid development of modern life and the emergence of contemporary technologies—which have challenged various fields, including public administration and its relationship with its employees and individuals—have led to the emergence of numerous situations that were not previously anticipated, and for which the legislator did not possess a clear and precise vision of the outcomes of such development. Among these situations is the use of audio and Video Recording of proof in administrative disputes.
Individuals, employees, and even the administration itself have come to rely on such technologies to substantiate their rights, which may be impossible or difficult to prove through traditional means on the one hand; and on the other hand, the ease of use and widespread availability of technological means have resulted in their frequent use and growing reliance as instruments for proving rights.

This study examines the Internet as a general characteristic of commerce. It attempts to clarify its legal system by providing a service and a means of negotiation between a seller and a buyer, and providing these after-sales services electronically. This is done by reviewing the concept of e-commerce, which works to support medium and small enterprises that operate via the Internet. These projects are the basis for e-commerce, which works to open the doors for individuals to integrate into the work of e-marketing. This is done by studying the recently issued e-commerce instructions No. (4) of 2025. Which allowed individuals and partners to conduct business transactions without physical presence This necessitates in-depth study about the changes brought about by this commerce, and obtain a license to practice this commerce, the obligations of the e-commerce merchant.

This study examines Russia’s evolving vision toward the Middle East as a strategic framework aimed at reshaping regional conflict dynamics through a shift from short-term crisis management to the consolidation of multidimensional influence. It analyzes Moscow’s use of military presence, pragmatic diplomacy, economic engagement, and narrative projection to secure a sustained role in a highly fragmented regional environment. The paper also highlights Russia’s capacity to balance competing regional actors without committing to rigid alliances. It argues that Russia has succeeded in positioning itself as an indispensable regional actor, while the durability of its influence depends on its adaptability to ongoing political and geopolitical transformations.

International cooperation in confronting epidemics is one of the most famous manifestations of human solidarity in our modern era. Global situations of health crises, for example ( Corona pandemic) showed a unification of efforts between countries and international organizations to combat the spread of cross-border epidemics, analyzing the role played by international organizations –and the World Health Organization in particular - in this field, coordinating global responses to epidemics, and evaluating the effectiveness of international cooperation mechanisms are the most important basic objectives of this study.
The study relied on the descriptive approach to explain the nature of the work of international organizations and to observe official reports and real-life experiences in managing health crises, It also relied on the analytical and comparative methods , to conclude that strengthening international cooperation requires reforming institutional structures, increasing technical and financial support for developing countries, and activating joint monitoring and early warning mechanisms.

Through examining the subject of the foreign currency auction in Iraq, this study concludes that Iraq has uniquely adopted this mechanism compared to other countries, whereby the sale of foreign currency is permitted through an auction system, also known as the “currency window.” This mechanism has placed a heavy burden on the authority responsible for managing monetary policy in Iraq, namely the Central Bank of Iraq. This burden is evident in the Bank’s significant role in supervising and monitoring the entities benefiting from the auction, foremost among them the banking sector, particularly private banks. The study reveals that these banks have failed to exercise due diligence and adequate care in auditing the financial accounts of their clients on the one hand, and the customers (traders) intending to participate in the currency auction through these banks on the other . As a result, legal violations have been identified indicating the involvement of these banks in the depletion of foreign currency through several crimes, most notably money laundering and the smuggling of foreign currency outside Iraq. This has led to serious damage to the national economy, which continues to suffer to this day from the magnitude of financial corruption in the management of public funds.

The world has witnessed a radical shift towards digitalization, leading to the emergence of new patterns of crime that transcend traditional boundaries of space and time, namely (cybercrime). This type of crime no longer targets individuals alone, but now threatens national security and the economies of countries, which has placed the Iraqi legal system in a real challenge to adapt traditional criminal rules to the nature of digital development and the new patterns that this development has produced in the Criminology, This matter has raised many questions about the nature of that crime and the means required to prove it under Iraqi law and some Arab legislations.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) stands as a pinnacle of modern technology, representing the culmination of decades of scientific research and substantial investment dedicated to developing systems capable of simulating cognitive functions and executing complex tasks. These advancements have profoundly impacted traditional frameworks, addressing their limitations in resolving intricate problems, thereby necessitating the establishment of a robust legal framework to regulate AI systems.
In the context of these technological strides, evidence remains the fundamental manifestation of truth sought by all parties in administrative disputes, including judges and litigants. Consequently, there is a growing trend toward leveraging modern methodologies to ascertain factual truth, most notably intelligent systems led by AI. However, this integration presents a novel challenge regarding the extent of its applicability within the judicial sphere, particularly in the domain of judicial evidence.

Artificial intelligence is considered the language of the modern era, having permeated all areas of life as one of the fruits of modern technology and scientific techniques. This has resulted in a tremendous transformation in contemporary life, particularly in the medical field, through the emergence of medical robots and their multiple applications. These robots have become among the most important innovations contributing to the improvement of healthcare quality and the development of the health sector. As a result, the surgical robot has emerged as a modern tool representing a qualitative shift in the field of surgery. However, despite the benefits of this advanced technology, it may be accompanied by various risks and harms that could affect patients’ bodies. This has prompted the present study to address this topic in order to examine the extent to which these robots realistically participate with medical staff in their field, as well as to identify the advantages and disadvantages resulting from this advanced technology. This is achieved by first addressing the general concept of the robot, then moving on to the surgical robot and identifying its most important practical aspects. Accordingly, the research concludes that robots have come to play an effective role in assisting physicians in performing complex surgeries that require a high level of precision difficult to achieve by the surgeon’s hand alone. With continuous development, robots have acquired the ability to perform tasks and make decisions independently of humans. Thus, today the surgical robot is capable of performing a surgical operation independently of the surgeon, which may result in errors or risks affecting patients. This necessitates the enactment of special legislation regulating material applications of artificial intelligence.

Radioactive pollution is one of the most dangerous types of environmental pollution. Its danger lies in the negative effects it has on all living organisms, especially humans, causing many diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders. There are two types of radioactive pollution: internal, which enters the body through inhaling contaminated air or consuming contaminated liquids, and external, which does not penetrate the body. Sources of radioactive pollution are either natural, such as radiation from space or reflected from the water\'s surface, or artificial, resulting from industries, nuclear reactors, and other sources. Determining the person responsible for the crime of radioactive pollution is a delicate and complex matter due to the intermingling of all activities, making it difficult to attribute the criminal outcome. This will be explained in detail in our research.

This research examines the concept of the interest requirement in constitutional cases. The interest requirement is one of the most important procedural conditions for the admissibility of constitutional cases in comparative legal systems,as it represents the tool that defines the scope of individuals\' and entities\' right to resort to constitutional courts. This research aims to study the legitimacy of the interest requirement and its impact on the admissibility of constitutional cases,through a comparison of four Arab legal systems: Egypt,Jordan,Morocco,and Iraq. The research addresses the theoretical framework of the interest concept and the legal basis for its legitimacy. It then reviews practical applications in these systems,analyzing judicial and jurisprudential trends in expanding or narrowing its definition. The research concludes that the interest requirement represents a fundamental guarantee for achieving a balance between protecting individual rights and respecting the principle of separation of powers. Furthermore,the modern judicial trend leans towards a controlled expansion of the interest concept,thereby strengthening effective constitutional oversight to protect public rights and freedoms.

The continuity of public affairs management is one of the fundamental pillars of government, which necessitates its existence and the exercise of its powers without interruption. However, political and constitutional systems face specific periods of constitutional challenge, leading to the formation of a caretaker government with narrow powers limited to current and necessary matters. In this research, we have clarified the concept of a caretaker government, provided a definition of a caretaker government that regulates its formation and the importance of this government, and explained the self-regulation of administrative oversight over it as a pivotal regulatory mechanism to ensure its adherence to the limits of its temporary mandate. We have also examined the means of activating administrative oversight and its resulting effects. We have reviewed the available means of activating administrative oversight for the administration in monitoring the performance of the caretaker government, including internal and external oversight, and the resulting effects of this oversight, whether related to correcting violations, limiting abuse of power, or enhancing the efficiency of executive performance during the temporary phase. It concluded with a set of recommendations, the most important of which is to define the constitutional framework for the powers of a caretaker government precisely, in order to avoid any ambiguity that may hinder the work of oversight or lead to exceeding its temporary powers, as well as closing constitutional and legislative gaps and establishing effective oversight rules

The national (strategic) security system of Iraq faces a number of challenges that can be classified into visible and invisible challenges. The most dangerous of these challenges are the invisible ones, which cannot be directly perceived except through research and analytical induction. These cyber challenges are a strategic threat that will affect strategic security (for individuals, institutions and the state), meaning that these challenges include most governmental and non-governmental sectors and institutions These cyber challenges pose a strategic threat that can affect strategic security (of individuals, institutions, and the state), meaning that these challenges encompass most governmental and non-governmental sectors and institutions

This study addresses the legal challenges of protecting intellectual property rights in the digital environment, with a critical analysis of Iraqi legislation compared to international standards and comparative jurisprudence. The study aims to identify substantive and procedural gaps in national legislation and evaluate the adequacy of current provisions in facing modern technological challenges, such as digital reproduction and cross-border infringements. Furthermore, it seeks to establish a proposed legal framework for intermediary liability and the activation of technological protection measures (TPMs). The analysis reveals that the unique characteristics of digital space have created legal hurdles exceeding traditional protection mechanisms. The study concludes with the necessity of adopting a comprehensive legislative reform that balances creative protection with the right to information, while enhancing the probative value of electronic evidence in civil litigation.

This study examines the evolution of Iraqi foreign policy towards Saudi Arabia from 2003 to 2025, a period marked by profound transformations in Iraq\'s internal and regional environment. The study begins with the post-2003 era, during which Iraqi foreign policy towards Saudi Arabia was characterized by caution and distance due to internal divisions, a lack of security and stability, and the rise of competing regional influence within Iraq. Successive Iraqi governments between 2003 and 2014 were unable to establish stable relations with Saudi Arabia due to complex security and political circumstances, resulting in a lack of effective diplomatic communication between the two countries.
While the second phase, from 2014 to 2025, witnessed a fundamental shift, as both sides recognized that the deteriorating regional conditions, particularly the threats of terrorism and the decline in oil prices, necessitated cooperation rather than tension, the astute foreign policy decision-making process and Saudi Arabia\'s willingness led to the reopening of the Saudi embassy in Baghdad. The Iraqi-Saudi Coordination Council was also established, and extensive economic cooperation projects were initiated, encompassing energy, investment, and agriculture. This was accompanied by significant progress in security cooperation, especially in intelligence and counterterrorism. Furthermore, cultural and religious dimensions contributed to strengthening the rapprochement through facilitating Hajj and Umrah pilgrimages and promoting moderate religious discourse.
The study concluded that the rapprochement between Iraq and Saudi Arabia was not merely a political move, but rather an objective response to a complex regional environment and a shared desire to achieve stability and development. The study\'s findings emphasize that the future of Iraqi foreign policy towards Saudi Arabia depends on the continuity of economic cooperation, the deepening of security partnerships, and the development of mechanisms for political dialogue that serve the interests of both countries.

This research examines the legal implications of disclosing drug formulation data, which is considered as a commercial secrets and confidential information whithin a special legal protection. Additionally, It explores the legal protection of drug formulations according to general principles of civil liability in cases of unlawful disclosure, as well as the provisions of the Iraqi Patent Law and related legislation. Moreover, the civil, criminal, and administrative consequences of such disclosure were highlighted, including compensation for losses and the possibility of holding the perpetrator accountable, either disciplinaryly or criminally, as appropriate. It clarifies the extent of liability regardless of whether the disclosure originates from an employee, partner, or any other person disclosing the data.

This study dealt with the topic of the Certified Economic Operator system, which is one of the most prominent tools of the World Customs Organization, and its role in simplifying customs procedures and facilitating the movement of international trade, by analyzing its legislative framework, its content and importance in international trade operations, aspects of its practical applications, and the extent to which it can be applied in Iraqi customs, by reviewing the legal and procedural nature of commercial companies according to the provisions of the Customs Law, and concluded the study with a set of conclusions and proposals that we concluded to be appropriate in applying this system.

The Libyan public was shocked by the news of the assassination of Dr. Saif al-Islam, son of Libyan Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, a prominent politician who spearheaded the comprehensive reform project for the Libyan political system, known as the Jamahiriya system, during his father\'s rule in the first decade of this century. Saif al-Islam Gaddafi adopted a pro-regime stance during the February 17, 2011 protests, which were supported by NATO. Following the regime\'s collapse, he attempted to flee to Niger but was apprehended and imprisoned in Zintan, a city that refused to extradite him to the Tripoli government. He was later released under a general amnesty law issued by the parliament aligned with the eastern Libyan government. He then went into hiding for security reasons before reappearing as a candidate in the elections.
He was the leading candidate to win the presidential elections, which were postponed at the end of 2021 due to security concerns. He held significant symbolic importance for the September Movement (supporters of the Green Flag) and those disillusioned with the widespread chaos, corruption, and division that has plagued Libya since NATO\'s military intervention in support of the 2011 protests. His assassination on March 3, 2026, is expected to have a significant impact on the outcome of the political conflict and the long-awaited presidential elections, as well as on his large popular base, which supported his father and him throughout his struggle to return to power through the ballot box. However, some argue that his absence will not affect the Libyan political landscape, offering several arguments and justifications.

The international system is undergoing profound transformations, marked by the rise of new powers such as China, India, Brazil, and Russia. These nations no longer accept marginalization in international decision-making and have established their own blocs and institutions to reflect their growing influence. Prominent examples include BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), and ASEAN. These institutions aim to offer alternatives to traditional Western institutions like the G7, NATO, the IMF, and the World Bank, but they do not necessarily intend to replace them entirely. Rather, they seek to build a parallel structure that reflects a new distribution of power and expands the options available to developing countries.
The international system is witnessing profound transformations, characterized by the rise of new powers such as China, India, Brazil, and Russia.
In the economic sphere, these powers established the BRICS New Development Bank as an alternative financing instrument, providing loans for infrastructure projects without political preconditions. They also work to reduce reliance on the dollar through settlements in national currencies and have established major trade networks such as the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), which encompasses a third of global trade. In the security sphere, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) has developed mechanisms to combat terrorism and extremism based on the principles of sovereignty and non-interference, linking security to development, in contrast to the Western model of military alliances. At the normative and value-based level, these institutions propose alternative concepts of governance, sovereignty, and human rights that focus on economic and social rights and reject Western political conditionality, thus challenging Western normative hegemony.
This rapid development contributes to accelerating the shift towards a multipolar international system, where power is no longer the sole domain of the West. These new institutions create a state of \"institutional dualism\" that allows developing countries broader options in their international relations and provides a platform for collective pressure to reform existing global governance institutions such as the Security Council and the International Monetary Fund.

The research focuses on the functional role played by multi-identity federalism as a political framework capable of managing ethnic diversity in composite states. This is accompanied by an ongoing debate about its real effectiveness, as in some contexts it leads to the reproduction of divisions and the reinforcement of separatist tendencies. The research addresses this issue by presenting a conditional comparative analytical approach that combines theoretical grounding with an analysis of practical experiences in a number of federations, using quantitative data and indicators to measure the impact of federalism in reducing political discrimination, reducing the potential for violence, and expanding channels for peaceful bargaining within states, while highlighting the importance of institutional arrangements in determining the conditions under which federalism is an effective tool, as opposed to situations in which it fails. The results show that federalism tends to provide a more conducive environment for accommodating differentiated groups than centralized systems, especially when combined with well-established democratic institutions, distributive justice, constitutional legitimacy, and a well-established culture of consensus among elites. The research concludes that the failure of some unions is not attributable to federalism as an institutional design, but rather to its imposition by force or weak democratic practices. Therefore, federalism is not an inevitable solution to conflicts, but it represents a flexible institutional option capable of achieving a balance between unity and diversity under certain favorable conditions.

This study examines the legal framework governing foreign labor in Iraq under Labor Law No. (37) of 2015, which seeks to balance the need for foreign workers—particularly skilled labor—with the protection of the national workforce, in light of the significant increase in migrant labor after 2003 and its accompanying social, economic, and security implications. The law requires that foreign workers may not be employed without an official work permit and guarantees them fundamental rights equivalent to those of Iraqi workers, including wages, rest, and occupational safety, while obligating employers to provide legal residency, health and social insurance, and travel tickets. However, in practice, many workers enter on tourist or commercial visas and work without permits, depriving them of legal protection and exposing them to exploitation, while also intensifying competition with domestic labor, increasing unemployment rates, and contributing to annual financial outflows estimated at approximately $600 million. The system further suffers from weak oversight and inspection mechanisms, particularly in enforcing the (20% foreign / 80% Iraqi) employment ratio, alongside documented violations such as the confiscation of documents and wages and instances of forced labor. This indicates that, although the legal framework is theoretically well-developed, it requires more effective enforcement mechanisms to ensure rights protection and maintain balance within the national economy.

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The secrets of major international political decisions are no longer determined solely by individual insights or traditional assessments; technology has become today the primary and dynamic driver of international decision-making. It has transformed from a mere tool for communication and information exchange into a strategic force capable of reshaping the global policy map and redefining the balance of power among international actors. Technological transformations have profoundly influenced the nature of societies and inter-state relations, as the current digital era is characterized by satellites, high-speed communications, and advanced information technologies, granting states and institutions unprecedented capabilities to collect data, analyze it, and make real-time decisions. Modern theories in international relations and global politics have emerged to focus on understanding the impact of digital technology and informational transformations on power, security, sovereignty, and international interaction, reflecting the new dynamics of the digital world. Furthermore, these dynamics are influenced by ideological behaviors linked to new capitalism, redefining the role of states and non-state actors and highlighting technology as a decisive element in shaping international policies.

This study examines health administrative policing and its applications in administrative as one of the most significant branches of general administrative policing, given its fundamental role in protecting public health and maintaining public order in its modern dimensions. The research aims to establish a clear conceptual and legal framework for health administrative policing by identifying its constitutional and legislative foundations, while focusing on its practical applications through the analysis of administrative judicial decisions in Iraq and selected comparative legal systems, thereby highlighting its role in ensuring the legality of administrative actions related to public health. The study also seeks to distinguish health administrative policing from other forms of administrative policing, analyze its traditional and non-traditional objectives, and explore its instruments, particularly regulatory bylaws, individual administrative decisions, and compulsory enforcement, in light of judicial applications. The research adopts a descriptive-analytical approach supported by a comparative method, through examining relevant legal texts and analyzing judicial trends. The study concludes that the effectiveness of health administrative policing is largely dependent on the efficiency of the legislative framework and the effectiveness of judicial oversight. It further emphasizes the need to develop legal regulations, strengthen the role of administrative, and modernize administrative tools in line with contemporary public health challenges, in a manner that ensures a proper balance between the protection of public health and the safeguarding of individual rights and freedoms.

This study examines the concept of the egalitarian ethos in the philosophy of the Canadian–British political thinker Gerald Cohen, considering it as the missing link between political justice and morality. Cohen seeks to reformulate the notion of distributive justice so that it transcends the justice of the “basic structure” of society, as articulated by John Rawls, extending instead to encompass the patterns of consciousness and individual conduct that govern agents’ choices within that structure.
Cohen conceives the egalitarian ethos as an internal commitment that guides individuals to refrain from exploiting their natural talents, privileged positions, and social luck in order to generate excessive advantages, and to align their way of life with their normative commitment to equality.
The study also addresses Cohen’s critique of Rawls’s theory of justice, particularly what he describes as an “institutional bias” embodied in the Difference Principle, through which inequalities grounded in luck are justified on the basis of economic incentives, while neglecting the role of individual choices in producing inequality. In response, Cohen advances socialism as an alternative horizon, understood primarily as a moral project rather than merely an economic or political one.
The study concludes that the egalitarian ethos in Cohen’s philosophy constitutes an indispensable condition for achieving a form of justice that goes beyond liberal compromises between equality and efficiency, by linking institutional arrangements to the reform of patterns of consciousness and behavior among elites and across social groups.

The circulation of unauthorized medications poses a threat to public health and safety. This is because these medications are produced or sold without medical examination or supervision to ensure their safety, thus posing health risks to individuals.
The harm caused by these medications varies; it may be minor in some cases, such as the inability to achieve the desired effect from the drug, while in others it can lead to serious harm, such as poisoning, and in many cases, even death. In short, the spread of these medications undermines confidence in public health institutions, thereby disrupting the healthcare system. Dealing in this type of medication is a violation of drug regulations and therefore warrants legal accountability.

Modern technology plays a pivotal role in reshaping the concept of national sovereignty .the state is no longer able to full control its borders and traditional domains as before. Tools such as the internet ,artificial intelligence ,cloud computing, and others have facilitated the of information across borders, weakening the states monopoly on information and control.
Conversely ,this technology has granted states new capabilities to enhance their sovereignty by developing cybersecurity systems, improving data management , and strengthening economic and technological power
Therefore, the impact of modern technology on national sovereignty is twofold,combining challenge and empowerment, and depends on the stats ability to adapt to these transformations and leverage them to its advantage.

The Bahraini case reflects a complex model of state-building crisis within a context where considerations of political legitimacy intertwine with structural, economic, and social imbalances. The political system is characterized by a broad concentration of executive power and a clear dominance over the legislative process. This has weakened mechanisms of representation and accountability and restricted the effectiveness of political participation, particularly within a legal environment that limits the activities of opposition forces and reshapes the public sphere to ensure the continuity of power. These factors have contributed to a fragile stability based more on a security approach than on political consensus.
Conversely, the recurring protests have indicated a growing gap between the state and society, fueled by imbalances in the distribution of power and wealth, as well as a rising sense of marginalization among broad segments of the population. This has deepened the structural nature of the political conflict and hindered the prospects for building a stable social contract. Furthermore, restrictions on public freedoms, including freedom of expression and assembly, have contributed to shrinking spaces for political mediation and pushing interactions toward more tense patterns.
Economically, despite some appearances of relative diversification, the Bahraini economy remains governed by the logic of oil rents, which limits the dynamism of sustainable development and makes public finances vulnerable to external fluctuations. This is compounded by persistent budget deficits and rising public debt, which intersect with labor market challenges, particularly disguised unemployment and the private sector\'s limited absorption of the national workforce, negatively impacting social stability.
At the social level, the issue of national identity emerges as a major source of tension. Sectarian affiliations are intertwined with the power structure, deepening divisions and undermining the principle of equal citizenship. Furthermore, policies of citizenship revocation and human rights violations foster an atmosphere of distrust and limit opportunities for social integration. Thus, a complex cycle of overlapping challenges is perpetuated, hindering comprehensive reform and necessitating the adoption of more balanced approaches based on political openness and equitable development.

This research examines the effectiveness of freezing digital assets as a legal mechanism for combating the financing of terrorism in light of the technological transformations brought about by cryptocurrencies. The study explores the conceptual framework of cryptocurrencies and their technical characteristics, as well as the ways in which they may be exploited for terrorist financing activities. It further reviews the international legal framework governing asset-freezing measures and analyzes the legal and technical challenges that hinder the practical implementation of such mechanisms in the digital environment.
The study concludes that the absence of a unified international legal framework, the weakness of international cooperation, and the technical complexities associated with tracing digital assets constitute the most significant obstacles to the effective enforcement of asset-freezing measures. Accordingly, the research emphasizes the need to develop flexible legislative and technological tools, alongside strengthening international cooperation mechanisms, in order to effectively address this transnational phenomenon.

Active multilateralism refers to the process of organizing relations among groups of three or more states. It is not merely dependent on the number of participating actors; rather, multilateralism is generally understood to encompass qualitative elements or principles that define the nature of the arrangement or institution. These principles include the indivisibility of interests among participants, a commitment to reciprocity, and the existence of a dispute settlement mechanism aimed at enforcing a specific pattern of behaviour.
Although multilateralism has a long historical background, its emergence is primarily associated with the period following the Second World War, which witnessed a significant expansion of multilateral agreements, largely led by the United States. Organizations in the fields of trade, such as the World Trade Organization, and security, such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), represent some of the most prominent institutions embodying the principle of multilateralism. In addition, numerous multilateral environmental institutions exist, while the United Nations serves as the primary platform for the system of active multilateralism. The European Union also supports this framework, having repeatedly emphasized its commitment to a multilateral system governing international relations and interactions.

Peaceful coexistence constitutes a fundamental pillar of (societal security) in Iraq, particularly in light of the challenges that have undermined social cohesion since 2003. This research highlights a multifaceted range of (constitutional, political, security, religious, cultural, social, and economic) challenges, specifically focusing on the period of the (ISIS terrorist organization\'s) control in 2014 and its severe repercussions. Furthermore, it addresses the complexities of (political quota-sharing/Muhasasa), which have weakened the centrality of the (national identity).
The study explores potential opportunities to enhance peaceful coexistence and societal security by activating (political and economic reforms), fostering tolerance, and promoting (community dialogue). It also emphasizes the necessity of empowering national media, involving (youth and women) in decision-making processes, and investing in culture and education. Ultimately, this research seeks to establish a framework for a (secure environment) that places Iraq on a genuine path toward recovery, stability, and comprehensive progress.

The issue of political reform in Iraq is of great and profound importance, as the country’s experience since 2003 represents a unique case in the history of contemporary political transitions. It has transitioned from an authoritarian, one-party system to a pluralistic, federal democratic system under complex circumstances marked by foreign occupation and regional interference. Despite its constitutional achievements—including the holding of periodic elections and the peaceful transfer of power—the political reform process in Iraq continues to face numerous internal and external obstacles that have prevented it from meeting citizens’ demands and thereby transforming into a functioning state governed by the rule of law. These obstacles are multifaceted, affecting all aspects of the state; which affects social stability and contributes to a state of reform stagnation. Foremost among these obstacles are the lack of political will among the ruling elites, the poor performance of both formal and informal political institutions, the prevalence of financial and administrative corruption, and the dominance of sectarian and political quotas across all sectors of the state.

The interactions between Ethiopia and Israel are a significant factor in reshaping the balance of power in the Nile Basin, particularly in light of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) crisis. This crisis has transformed from a technical issue into a sensitive matter of sovereignty, intertwining international law, geography, and politics. A historical review of the agreements governing the river, from the 1902 understandings and the arrangements of 1929 and 1959 to the Entebbe Agreement of 2010, reveals a gradual shift from a system based on acquired privileges to a changing environment characterized by competing notions of unilateral sovereignty and the redistribution of resources. Within this context, the Nile\'s vital importance to Egypt and Sudan becomes evident, contrasted with Ethiopia\'s desire to transform this water resource into a developmental and strategic tool to bolster its regional standing.
Politically, the dam crisis has reshaped the patterns of interaction among the Nile Basin countries, employing tools of pressure and multi-level negotiation while highlighting the limitations of traditional approaches, whether through African mediation or international engagement. This is due to the divergent frameworks between historical rights and the principle of equitable use. The presence of international actors, including the United States, has been geared more towards managing the crisis than resolving it, maintaining a fragile balance without a final settlement.
Ethiopian-Israeli relations have acquired strategic significance, representing an extension of Israel\'s influence in the Horn of Africa since the 1950s. This influence is manifested through support for Ethiopia\'s technical and security capabilities in the dam project, thus strengthening its negotiating position. Egypt, on the other hand, views this rapprochement as a threat to regional stability. Consequently, the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) crisis has become a model reflecting broader shifts in the nature of resource conflicts, where water is no longer merely a natural element but a strategic tool for reproducing power and redefining regional balances.

The Public Prosecution Service in Iraq is a fundamental body within the judicial system. One of its primary roles is to defend legitimacy and the rule of law. Although the Public Prosecution Service is a component of the judicial system, it maintains complete independence. The law has granted this body broad powers, which will be discussed later in this research. It is also noteworthy that this body is crucial for maintaining the security and stability of society. The new law has granted it the right to challenge the constitutionality of laws and regulations before the Federal Court. Furthermore, among the new duties assigned to this body is its role in combating financial and administrative corruption. It is noteworthy that the previous law did not grant this right to the Public Prosecution Service, which is a positive development. The Public Prosecution Service\\'s role is extensive, beginning with filing reports and initiating legal proceedings. It also plays a role in cases involving minors and intervenes in administrative courts in the interest of the law. Moreover, it has an oversight role regarding detention centers and prisons, monitoring their compliance with human rights. The most important role of the Public Prosecution Service is to protect society and achieve justice

In a volatile world where international conflicts and tensions have increased, the urgent need for states to pursue peaceful means to resolve these disputes has emerged. From this standpoint, many countries, including Qatar, have sought, through mediation—an approach that constitutes a constitutional commitment stipulated in Article 7 of the Qatari Constitution, which emphasizes promoting international peace and security by working to resolve disputes peacefully—to become a reliable partner in solving the problems of other countries, thus enabling it to gain more prestige, voice, and friends in global politics. To achieve this goal, the Doha government has relied heavily on mediation diplomacy, to the point that the term was officially included in the Qatari Constitution in 2003. In addition, and aspiring to be the “Geneva of the Middle East,” the Qataris introduced the term “preventive diplomacy,” with the aim of replacing the term “preventive war” coined by the Americans. Qatar’s goal in mediation diplomacy was not only to enhance its international standing, strengthen its national identity, and bolster its soft power, but also to preserve its survival as a small state. Given its location in a region experiencing ongoing religious and military conflicts, Qatar utilizes mediation to prevent these conflicts from spilling over into its borders and to neutralize its regional and international adversaries. Qataris also view mediation as a moral imperative, with Qatari officials emphasizing its importance as a moral, cultural, and religious duty, asserting that the Quran commands parties to employ mediation, reconciliation, and compromise to resolve disputes.

Administrative decisions of a regulatory nature are considered among the most important means that enable the executive authority to perform its function. They include general and abstract rules that apply to an unspecified number of individuals and aim to implement laws and detail their provisions in a way that ensures the proper functioning of public services, They differ from individual decisions in that they do not address a specific person but rather regulate general legal positions. These decisions are based either on an inherent regulatory competence or on a delegation from the legislative authority, which makes them a complementary instrument to legislation rather than a substitute for it, This is connected to the principle of separation of powers, whose foundations were laid by the French thinker Montesquieu, and which is based on distributing the functions of the state among the legislative, executive, and judicial authorities in order to prevent the concentration of power. In principle, the legislative authority is responsible for enacting general rules, while the executive authority undertakes their implementation, However, granting the administration the power to issue regulatory decisions may raise the issue of overlap between the two authorities, particularly when the delegation is broad or not precisely defined. Nevertheless, these decisions remain subject to the principle of legality and judicial review, thereby maintaining the balance between the powers.

Nowadays, countries face unprecedented environmental challenges because of climate change and the rapid growth of digital transformation. Artificial intelligence presents chances to support the administration of environmental resources and achieve sustainability. But at the same time, it may increase energy consumption and double the carbon footprint if it is not arranged effectively. In this context, the administration plays a central role in setting the policies and organizing the technology usage to ensure environmental protection and achieve climate justice via an equitable cost distribution, setting the benefits of environmental transition, and protecting the most vulnerable groups. The agreement of Paris in 2015 is considered an international and political framwork which detect the obligations of countries by emission reduction and promoting sustainable development. It constitutes a standard for evaluating the effectiveness of national policies. This study focuses on the mechanisms via which the country adopts technical development with sustainability and climate justice goals, including planning, monitoring, and decision-making tools that minimize environmental risks of artificial intelligence.
The study also discusses the strategies that create a balance between the benefits of modern technologies and the protection of the environment, emphasizing that the success of any policy depends on the state’s ability to balance international obligations, climate justice, and international benefits to ensure a more sustainable environment for current and future generations.

Cybercrimes have become among the most serious crimes in the modern era due to the rapid development of information technology and communication systems, along with the widespread use of the Internet and digital platforms in various aspects of daily life. This development has led to the emergence of new forms of criminal behavior that threaten individuals, institutions, and states, which necessitated legislative intervention to regulate criminal liability for such crimes.
This research aims to clarify the concept of criminal liability in cybercrimes and to explain its essential elements, while highlighting the main forms of cybercrimes and the legal challenges they raise, particularly those related to evidence, identification of the offender, and jurisdiction. The study also examines the position of criminal legislation, especially Iraqi law, regarding cybercrimes and assesses the adequacy of existing legal provisions in providing effective criminal protection, with reference to proposed recommendations for strengthening criminal policy in combating cybercrime.