The International and Political Journal

Political parties in Israel are essential components of the political system, significantly influencing political life. They hold a prominent position within Israeli society and have a The study found that the characteristics of Israeli political parties and their embrace of Zionism as a political ideology prioritize their struggle for power and control over decision-making positions, often more than other issues, all within the broadly accepted framework for the state's interests. It also concluded that political parties are the ones that provide the necessary human resources for the goals and military mechanisms of Zionism and that they also help entrench immigration and settlement in addition to contributing to the international political game and engaging in more than one political party line in the world. It also determined that political parties supply the essential human resources for the objectives and military strategies of Zionism. Additionally, they play a role in reinforcing immigration and settlement, while also participating in the international political arena and engaging with multiple political ideologies worldwide.

This research aims to present an analytical approach to the mechanism proposed by Muhammad Hussein Al-Tabataba'i, one of the most prominent contemporary Islamic thinkers, concerning the issue of the necessity, genesis (origin), and Islamic nature of political authority. This is done within the scope of a political intellectual vision that integrates with the religious foundations that Al-Tabataba'i adheres to. The research has been divided into three sections; the first section addresses the rational necessity and the legal/Shari”a necessity of political authority according to Al-Tabataba'i; the second section examines the genesis (origin) of political authority; and the third section discusses the Islamic nature of political authority according to Muhammad Hussein Al-Tabataba'i

The concept of intellectual extremism is one of the concepts that is difficult to define or generalize about. This is because extremism is generally linked to many political, religious, social, and psychological variables. This is in addition to the confusion between the concept of extremism and many other concepts such as violence, fanaticism, and terrorism, which are embodied in the massive crises facing contemporary humanity. Because of the destruction and devastation that it causes, and the corruption and devastation of minds that results from it, since the phenomenon of intellectual extremism is one of the basic phenomena and issues that many contemporary societies, especially Arab and Islamic ones, are concerned with. It is a daily life issue whose bridges extend into the structural formation of ideas and ideological ideals accepted in society. Extremist thought, like any social cognitive system, Is affected by and influences other phenomena that are largely linked to historical, political, religious, social, economic and other circumstances to which society is exposed, like any social cognitive phenomenon, must be addressed.

Economies with a single resource (rentier) have become subject to the various variables that interact with each other to be reflected in various forms on economic conditions in general and financial in particular, and their implication vary according to the strength of the impact of these factors on the one hand, and the nature of these economies and the degree of their flexibility to absorb the negative impact of these influences, which they are called (shock) , including the negative impact of oil prices.
The problem that governs the research is evident at the following: sudden oil price movements in global markets , especially the negative (decrease) from them , confuse the states rentier economy , which appears clearly in the state’s general budget , which makes it a function of price change.

Southeast Asian countries face numerous challenges in the geopolitics of war, including territorial disputes, competition for resources, and external interventions. The region is rich in natural resources, such as oil, gas, and minerals, which have attracted the attention of major powers, leading to tensions and the potential for conflict. In addition, long-standing territorial disputes, such as those in the South China Sea, pose a challenge to security, stability, and cooperation among countries in the region. The involvement of external powers, such as the United States and China, further complicates the geopolitical landscape, as these powers often have competing interests and may use their influence to support certain countries or positions. Finally, the potential for religious and ethnic tensions to escalate, as well as the threat of armed terrorist groups turning violent, is another challenge that must be addressed in the region.

This study highlighted an important and vital topic: (The geostrategic importance of islands in the South China Sea: The Paracel and Spratly Islands as examples). The focus was on the strategic, economic, political, and defense importance of the islands, which have become a focal point of competition among the littoral states to assert ownership, control their natural resources, and establish energy projects, given their strategic significance in the South China Sea.
The problem lies in investigating the reasons for the competition between the countries involved in the region over ownership of the islands, each according to its claim, and what the repercussions of this conflict are at the regional and international levels, and what are the most important challenges facing the islands in the South China Sea. In particular, the changes in the policies of major countries and climate change, and the efforts made at the regional and international levels, as well as the efforts of international organizations to maintain the security and stability of this region.
The results of the hypothesis showed that despite China's efforts to extend its influence in the South China Sea through several projects, including the Belt and Road Initiative and the Pearl Strand, to compete with the United States in the region. Maintaining the security and stability of waterways and trade routes in the South China Sea remains a regional and international demand shared by all parties, in order to protect their security and interests in the region.
The study concluded that the islands are important in the South China Sea due to their vital strategic location, controlling global trade routes and influencing the global economy. They also play an important defensive role in monitoring oceans and waterways. Equipped with advanced air defense systems for early threat detection, as well as its natural resources, it has become a target for countries vying for control, given the seriousness of the conflict on a regional and international level. The conflicting countries seek to resolve these conflicts in order to protect their interests, in addition to joint regional and international efforts to maintain security and stability in the region.

Iran has played major roles in the field of the Middle East, since the dawn of history due to its geographical location and it is distinguished from its neighboring countries in the region by the availability of various wealth resources, and emerged as a country with of particular importance for the Gallic conflict between the great architectural states of the nineties directed to the East colonization, in which large empires have extensive access to its resources and raw materials, and its legion has a major field for consuming western production. The main one was limited to the mediation of the two geographical locations.

As a result of global changes and shifts in the geopolitical, economic, and international security landscapes, especially the strengthening of global security across various levels, these risks have become more pronounced. They include security threats, the non-traditional arms race, environmental hazards, and diseases, notably the COVID-19 pandemic and its variants. These risks also cover earthquakes, climate change, competition over space exploration and militarisation, as well as geopolitical, geomilitary, geoeconomic, and cyber risks. Global powers have begun to incorporate these risks into their geopolitical strategies and interactions at all levels and dimensions. This requires national and international authorities to develop a rational set of strategies and options to respond to or manage these risks and their impact on global security.
The study aims to introduce risk management and its measurement indicators, as well as risk management strategies and how China applies them. It also seeks to examine and analyse the impact of risk management on global security. To address this issue and test its hypothesis, the study relies on descriptive-analytical approaches, functional approaches, case study methods, and quantitative approaches.

This research discusses the issue of environmental security in a rentier state, specifically the case of Iraq, which relies on oil production for national income. The nature of this type of production and its environmental impact are analyzed, and the challenges hindering its effectiveness are identified. These challenges have led to environmental problems at all levels, making Iraq one of the countries most affected by environmental depletion, thus requiring urgent solutions. The economic and social repercussions that Iraq might face if oil production were altered or reduced are outlined, given the economy's complete dependence on this revenue. The research also examines the most important measures taken by the government to mitigate environmental degradation. These measures have ranged from policies addressing environmental degradation to adopting more sustainable production methods to achieve ecological balance. However, these measures have faced numerous challenges at both the legislative and implementation levels due to a lack of expertise in this field. Finally, the research proposes several suggestions to strengthen environmental security.

The research aimed to reveal the democratic transition after the year 2003 and its impact on the Iraqi media between freedom of expression and political employment, and the importance of the research comes from the fact that it addresses the media transformation in Iraq after 2003, as one of the most important indications of the democratic transition, as it sheds light on the contradiction between the provisions of the constitution that guarantee freedom of expression and the actual reality that witnesses a large political and partisan interference in the work of the media, and the researcher followed the descriptive analytical approach due to its appropriateness For the requirements of the research, the research has been divided into three comprehensive topics in addition to the introduction and conclusion containing the most prominent results and recommendations, and the researcher has reached several results, most notably that the Iraqi media has shifted from a media governed by controls and laws to a chaotic media that reflected the political chaos in Iraq, and the laws that governed the Iraqi media have evolved from the Ottoman Publications Law, and most of the Iraqi media are characterized by being affiliated with one of the religious and political bodies and lacked the media profession, and the Iraqi media has witnessed a great development after He occupied Iraq after these means were numbered and became private property after they were the monopoly of successive governments that ruled Iraq.

The Strait of Hormuz is one of the world's most vital maritime passageways for energy transport. Its geographical location constitutes a pivotal point in geopolitical and economic balances, especially in light of the Gulf states' reliance on exporting oil and gas through it, and the reliance of major Asian countries on importing these vital resources.
The study focuses on analyzing the strategic perception of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states, which view the Strait as an integral part of their national security and seek to secure it through military alliances and the development of strategic alternatives. It also examines the Asian perception, particularly that of China, India, and Japan, which view the Strait as a key element of energy security and are working to strengthen their maritime presence in the region to ensure stable supplies.

This research examines the evolution of Turkey's foreign policy in dealing with international crises, especially after 2011, when Turkey shifted from a "zero problems" approach to a more active and interventionist foreign policy in regional issues, such as the Syrian crisis and the Eastern Mediterranean crises. The importance of this study lies in its focus on the experience of a regional power in a turbulent environment, reviewing Turkey's success or failure in managing these crises through various tools. This study focuses on outlining the theoretical framework of the concept of international crisis management, analyzing Turkey's tools for dealing with crises, studying the practical models of Turkey's role in regional crises, and assessing the effectiveness of this role in light of international changes. The study is based on the hypothesis that Turkey relied on a mix of soft power (diplomacy, media, aid) and hard power (military) in crisis management. Turkey's intervention was sometimes effective, and at other times hasty and uncalculated. Turkish political ambition clashed with internal and international challenges that impacted its performance. The methodology includes descriptive research, case study, and historical analysis, as these approaches suit the nature of this study.
The researcher reached a set of conclusions, including that Turkish policy was driven by expansionist ambitions that did not always align with the international reality. Turkish interventions in crises brought strategic and security dimensions, but sometimes led to its political isolation. Turkey shifted from a policy of "zero problems" to "managing problems through influence." Despite the diversity and intensification of Turkey's efforts, its impact on reaching a final settlement remained limited due to conflicting interests with other countries, in addition to the complexity of the internal Syrian environment and the presence of multiple conflict parties.

This study examines the concept of peaceful coexistence and its role in enhancing societal security, taking Iraq after 2003 as a case study, in light of the profound political and security transformations that have directly affected the structure and cohesion of Iraqi society. The research is grounded in a central problem concerning the extent to which the mechanisms of peaceful coexistence adopted in the Iraqi context have contributed to achieving sustainable societal security, particularly amid the rise of sub-national identities and the erosion of inclusive citizenship.
The study aims to analyze the conceptual frameworks of peaceful coexistence and societal security, diagnose their reality in Iraq after 2003, and reveal the interactive relationship between them, while also identifying the main structural challenges hindering the consolidation of coexistence and the strengthening of societal security. To achieve these objectives, the research adopts a descriptive–analytical approach, relying on the analysis of relevant theoretical literature, an examination of Iraq’s political and social realities, and linking theoretical insights with practical developments.
The study is structured around three main sections. The first addresses the concept of peaceful coexistence and its reality in Iraq. The second discusses the concept of societal security, its foundations, and the challenges it has faced since 2003. The third section analyzes the role of peaceful coexistence in promoting societal security, by tracing the stages Iraq has experienced, particularly the period of sectarian violence, the rise of terrorist organizations, and subsequent attempts to rebuild coexistence after the defeat of ISIS terrorist organization.
The study concludes that the fragility of peaceful coexistence has directly contributed to the erosion of societal security, and that the absence of the rule of law, the entrenchment of sectarian power-sharing, and widespread corruption have all undermined efforts to build a cohesive society. It also finds that strengthening citizenship, tolerance, dialogue, and restoring the concept of an inclusive state constitute essential conditions for rebuilding peaceful coexistence and achieving long-term societal security in Iraq.

The Belgian government has faced cybersecurity challenges due to the technological revolution that transformed its activities from traditional procedures to digital procedures that are dealt with through devices and programs that are transmitted over electronic networks and stored in a graphic memory, which redraws the concept of security anew. This new concept requires the Belgian government to create policies that deal with this variable that has occurred in the state's activities in a way that provides it with adequate protection from cyber threats. The Belgian government had no choice but to issue a set of policies that resulted in the establishment of the National Cybersecurity Center, whose work focuses on providing protection requirements from electronic devices, systems, and programs and raising awareness for citizens, in addition to its role in enhancing means of coordination and cooperation between local and international institutions in order to confront cyber-attacks. However, all these measures taken by the Belgian government are the result of the policies adopted by the European Union. Therefore, this research came to address the cybersecurity policy in Belgium since its inception; reaching the stages of its development and diversity, and its enforcement

This reasreach explores the approach of peaceful coexistence with the other in contemporary Islamic political thought. Islam emphasizes the foundations of human coexistence through values such as justice, equality, and mercy. It guarantees the rights of non-Muslims within the Islamic society, including freedom of belief and the practice of religious rituals.The research focuses on six main themes: the rights of non-Muslims in society, tolerance and acceptance of the other, the concept of citizenship, mechanisms of peaceful interaction and coexistence, the principle of justice in relationships, and the study of the Constitution of Medina as a pioneering historical model for organizing relations between Muslims and others. The reasreach aims to highlight the contemporary Islamic political perspective on these principles and the continuity of the prophetic approach in promoting peaceful coexistence, thereby reinforcing shared human values in modern societies.

The study attempts to analyze the role of national integration policies in enhancing national unity in Iraq after 2003. It addresses the theoretical framework of the concepts of national integration and national unity, along with the relationship between them. Adopting a descriptive-analytical methodology, the research examines existing literature and analyzes Iraqi policies in this field. The study concludes that Iraq faces significant challenges in achieving national integration due to its complex social structure, sub-national affiliations, and external interventions. However, considerable potential exists for fostering integration through policies based on justice, equality, equal opportunities, and the promotion of a shared national identity. The research also highlights that the absence of a clear strategic vision and weak political will are among the most critical obstacles to achieving national integration.

China is taking escalating steps towards asserting its political, economic and security presence in the Horn of Africa region, which is of strategic importance to China, especially in light of the challenges facing the region following the current tension between Ethiopia and Somalia. China is considered the strongest economic partner with the countries of the Horn of Africa, according to figures and statistics on trade exchange between the Horn of Africa and China, which may lead it to engage in the political experience and invest its economic influence in extending its security and political aspects of influence, and the deployment of its naval fleets off the Somali coast, the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, through bilateral cooperation mechanisms with the countries of the Horn, specifically Djibouti, Eritrea and Somalia, and its future attempts to find solutions to internal and regional crises such as those pending between Ethiopia, Egypt and Sudan over the Renaissance Dam, which is a qualitative Chinese transition from economic rent to political paths. These are the rapid Chinese steps in the region with the intention of China to benefit from the preoccupation of traditional international powers (the United States and the European Union Group) to enhance its African presence.

This study seeks to show that political stability is one of basic factors influencing the process of sustainable development, and this can be reached by proving the interconnected relationship between them, as one depends on the other. The integrated political system is capable of survival, continuity, and stability, which enjoys acceptance and satisfaction from society, and political agencies and institutions. Stable conditions in the state have an effective impact on sustainable development, which is one of the main goals of the political system. Knowing the stability of the state and the political system leads to the various state authorities and institutions. and this becomes an obstacle to those authorities and institutions in achieving the various development plans and programs on which the life of society depends. Hence, divisions, political conflicts, transfers, security deterioration, and the lack of effective good governance based on the rule law lead to the state not achieving its development programs and plans or being reluctant to achieve them, and the loss of sustainable development in turn reflects negatively on the state, the political system, its authority and its political institutions, and for this reason all countries of the world seek , including Iraq, to achieve political stability .

The research highlights the Iraqi Development Road Project in a quantitative manner on the Iraqi economy. The distinguished project is a significant achievement in Iraq’s efforts to once again place it on the global trade and transportation map, thanks to the geo-economic advantages there, as Iraq needs a logistics center linking the Arabian Gulf to Europe via Turkey. However, the project faces complex challenges, including internal and regional security risks and political instability, as well as obstacles from parties that view it as a potential competitor to their ports and traditional international transport routes, which affects its chances of success.
The research relied on the analytical approach to study the relationship between the project and Iraqi economic security, while using the foresight approach to study and evaluate future scenarios. The results indicate that the project can contribute to strengthening Iraqi economic security by improving job opportunities, developing infrastructure, and increasing non-oil revenues. This reduces the Iraqi economy's vulnerability to oil price fluctuations. The project also strengthens Iraq's position in global supply chains, enhancing its ability to achieve financial stability. The study concludes that the success of the Development Road project depends on adopting an integrated strategy that includes infrastructure development, achieving security and stability, and building effective international partnerships. It recommends establishing an independent oversight body to ensure integrity in implementation, attract foreign investment, and enhance regional cooperation to ensure the project's sustainability and achieve its development goals.

Iraq distinguished by its important geopolitical strategic location , which makes it an focal point for the regional and even international orientations of neighboring countries. The Iraqi arena has witnessed many international and regional clashes and conflicts, due to the rapid changes in the centers of power within the international system, which have political and economic interests in the region, as they seek to establish their footholds and strengthen their bases there. This was particularly evident after the vacuum created by the U.S. occupation of Iraq in 2003, which altered the political system and even the sectarian power equation. Despite the regional rejection that accompanied the changes in Iraq, in recent years, we have seen some regional and Gulf countries in particular begin to reopen the dialogue and establish diplomatic relations with Iraq, as the latter possesses significant energy resources and is considered a hub for international and regional trade. This is where the importance of the study lies, as most studies focus on the regional and international countries\' perspectives on Iraq and their impact on Iraqi foreign policy, which has witnessed fluctuations due to the orientations of successive governments, especially after 2003. However, our study aims to highlight the significance of Iraq to regional and Gulf countries and explore the sources of strength that Iraq possesses, which qualify it to rise to a regional and international level that matches its status and natural size.

Elections determine the organization of the entire form of political life in the state, as there is a dialectical relationship between democracy and elections. It is not possible to talk about the existence of a democratic system in the absence of fair and transparent elections. Elections have become one of the most effective means of deepening democracy. Therefore, Western political thought has tended to make them the basic mechanism for reaching power in a way that transforms the right to vote into an embodiment of two basic characteristics: strong legitimacy on the one hand, and the possibility of civilized societies dealing with electoral work on the other hand. Elections are nothing more than a political and technical mechanism that allows citizens to choose a person from among a number of candidates to be a representative of the group to which they belong. In this regard, the transformations that the world has witnessed towards democracy since the eighties have created a desire to search for models for appropriate representative institutions. The nineties witnessed a great development in the reforms focused on electoral systems, especially in the new democracies in Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe and others, where they began to study and quote. Distinctive experiences to support democracy from abroad .
Elections have become the most prominent feature in the world of democracy, and countries that do not adopt elections and clear systems will be dictatorial. It seems that democratic systems in our contemporary time are more numerous than dictatorial systems, but up to now, political thought has not reached the required level. We can summarize the most important matters that would increase awareness, positive influence, and political stability, that coalitions should be based on the public interest and not on the interest of parties, sects ,or race , In order for there to be a true national partnership, the goal of the parties must be the peaceful transfer of power and work in accordance with the principle of separation of powers and cooperation between them. Political and governmental stability is linked to many factors, some of which precede the formation of the government and some of which coincide with it, some of which are the result of internal factors and some of which are the result of external factors. As far as Iraq is concerned, it has witnessed a state of general political instability. One of the most important reasons that caused political instability in Iraq is the existence of a defect in the adopted electoral system because it does not conform to the nature of the social or political structure in Iraq.

Between 2020 and 2024, Syria witnessed a critical phase of its crisis, during which the repercussions of international sanctions worsened, especially after the implementation of the US Caesar Act, which targeted the Syrian regime and its supporters and extended to entities in Russia and Iran. These sanctions led to severe economic isolation, the collapse of the Syrian pound, rising prices, and widespread poverty and unemployment. They also severely impacted vital sectors such as health, energy, and industry, further complicating the humanitarian crisis. Especially in light of the COVID-19 pandemic and the decline in relief aid. Although the sanctions were intended to pressure for a political solution, their direct impact has also affected the Syrian people, opening the door to in-depth analysis of their effectiveness and outcomes at both the domestic and international levels.

This study addresses the implications of the Russian-Ukrainian War on energy security, focusing on three major powers: Russia, China, and the European Union. Since the outbreak of the war in February 2022, the international system has witnessed fundamental shifts in energy dynamics, as the crisis marked a turning point in reshaping global supply policies.
For Russia, Western sanctions led to a reduction in its role as a primary energy supplier to Europe, negatively impacting its commercial revenues and geopolitical standing. This forced it to redirect its exports toward Asian markets despite the higher cost. China, on the other hand, benefited from the crisis by securing Russian supplies at preferential prices and concluding long-term strategic agreements, such as the 'Power of Siberia 2' project. However, it simultaneously faced challenges related to price volatility and concerns about over-reliance on Russia.
Conversely, the crisis posed the greatest threat to European energy security. The continent historically relied on Russian gas, and with the suspension of supply lines, prices rose unprecedentedly, exacerbating inflation and recession rates. This prompted the European Union to launch the RePowerEU plan, aiming to diversify its sources and transition toward renewable energy.
The study demonstrates that the Russian-Ukrainian War's effects were not limited to the economy but also redrew maps of influence in the energy sector, compelling major powers to reconsider their future strategies, reflecting profound shifts in the balance of power within the international system.
Key Words (Power of Siberia 2, Energy Security, Implications of the Russian-Ukrainian War, China, European Union)

This study dealt with an important subject, which is (criticism of democracy in contemporary Western political thought of the post-Marxist trend of Alan Turin - a model). Or procedural as he calls it. As for the second axis, it was dedicated to studying Alan Turin's criticism of the mechanisms and foundations of democracy. As for the third axis, we devoted it to studying social democracy as a reformist alternative after criticism of Alan Turin. Now Turin is based on the existence of a high level of culture in society and the presence of an active self within society that contributes to the establishment of a democratic system based on (freedom, equality, and fraternity). Without these principles, reformist social democracy cannot be achieved.

NATO has witnessed a qualitative shift in its defense policies following the adoption of the new Strategic Concept for 2022. This study examines the fundamental changes that have occurred in NATO's defense approach following the 2022 Strategic Concept. The study aims to highlight the importance of the major shift in the international environment, which has necessitated the need to reshape NATO's vision to address changing global events and find modern methods and mechanisms to confront Russian threats and Chinese challenges.
The study concludes that NATO has reoriented its defense strategy toward enhancing deterrence, defense, and nuclear escalation preparedness, reflecting a return to Cold War concepts but within new global contexts and other challenges facing the alliance. Therefore, the need for a new NATO Strategic Concept for 2022 has arisen.

Since 2013, economic cooperation between Russia and China has significantly strengthened. This cooperation has been driven by the two sides' shared desire to establish a long-term strategic partnership, particularly in light of the Belt and Road Initiative. This trend has contributed to an unprecedented increase in trade between the two sides, in addition to deepening cooperation in the financial and banking sectors, as well as in the energy sector. This economic rapprochement has helped the two countries further coordinate their positions, strengthening their positions and roles in the international economic system.

After the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States emerged as the sole superpower on the international scene. It adopted a globalization strategy to strengthen its economic and political hegemony, particularly in Latin America, through initiatives such as the Free Trade Area of the Americas and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). However, these policies faced resistance from emerging regional states, most notably Brazil, which sought to promote independent regional integration through the Mercosur bloc, with the aim of preserving its economic and political sovereignty. Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, US foreign policy was characterized by a unilateralist approach and a focus on counterterrorism, which led to a decline in interest in Latin America, despite some forms of cooperation with Brazil. The Obama administration then attempted to adopt a more multilateral and inclusive policy, with a focus on environmental issues and human rights. Under Donald Trump's presidency (2017-2021), US-Latin American relations witnessed increasing tensions due to the adoption of a protectionist "America First" policy, a focus on immigration issues, and limiting Chinese influence. There was a clear rapprochement with the right-wing administration in Brazil. The Joe Biden administration, on the other hand, has adopted an institutional approach focused on strengthening democracy and climate cooperation, while some environmental disputes with Brazil persist, particularly regarding the protection of the Amazon rainforest. These stages highlight the fluctuations in US-Latin American relations, as US economic and political hegemony conflicts with the desire of the region's countries, led by Brazil, to achieve relative independence and enhance regional integration.

This study examines the pivotal role of SWIFT (Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication) in facilitating international economic integration, focusing on Japan and the United States as key players in the global financial system. Utilizing official data from the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, the study investigates the impact of SWIFT on cross-border financial flows, financial stability, and the promotion of international trade relations. The study reveals that the SWIFT system serves as critical infrastructure for global financial transactions, functioning both as a tool that facilitates financial and economic exchange and as an instrument of economic policy. In the case of Japan, the analysis highlights the nation's substantial reliance on SWIFT for managing global supply chain transactions and export-related financial transfers. Concurrently, the United States employs SWIFT strategically to consolidate its position as the predominant global currency issuer and to augment its geopolitical influence. The financial data presented in this study reveals distinct patterns of SWIFT utilization between the two economies, thereby substantiating the interplay among technological, political, and economic factors in determining SWIFT's role in international economic relations. The study concludes that while SWIFT promotes global financial interdependence, its strategic use by major economies also demonstrates financial hegemony, sovereignty, and economic dependence.

The US withdrawal from Afghanistan in August 2021 had disastrous repercussions for the Afghan interior, far exceeding initial expectations. This sudden withdrawal led to the rapid collapse of the Western-backed government of the Republic of Afghanistan, allowing the Taliban to seize power within weeks. The most prominent internal repercussions included, first, the collapse of the political and security system. Government institutions fell, and Afghan security forces quickly collapsed, creating a massive security vacuum that led to the spread of chaos and violence. Second, the emergence of a severe humanitarian crisis. The withdrawal led to a large-scale humanitarian crisis, as millions of Afghans suffered from food, water, and health care shortages, and rates of malnutrition and poverty increased dramatically. Third, human rights violations. Numerous reports indicated widespread human rights violations by the Taliban, including severe restrictions on women’s freedom, freedom of expression, and freedom of the press, in addition to targeting ethnic and religious minorities. Fourth, large-scale internal displacement. Fighting and unrest led to massive internal displacement, as millions of Afghans fled their homes in search of safety. Fifth, Economic recession: The Afghan economy collapsed dramatically after the withdrawal, due to the cessation of international aid, the freezing of Afghan assets abroad, and the decline in foreign investment. Sixth, the conflict continues. Despite the Taliban’s control, the conflict has not ended, as other armed groups continue to resist Taliban rule, threatening the country’s stability. In short, the US withdrawal from Afghanistan has led to a large-scale humanitarian, political, and security disaster, which has greatly worsened the situation in the country, leaving millions of Afghans suffering from the devastating effects of this withdrawal. Afghanistan’s future remains uncertain, and depends on many factors, including the development of the security situation, the ability to provide humanitarian assistance, and dealing with the economic crisis, in addition to international and regional interactions.

Political leadership is an important element in guiding countries and societies through making decisions that impact their lives and futures. Leadership depends on several elements, including strategic vision, personal charisma, and influencing followers by convincing and attracting them. In the context of explaining leadership, theories vary. Some focus on distinctive traits and characteristics, while others adopt the situational or (circumstance) theory that links leadership success to the interactive situation. However, technological developments in the field of artificial intelligence have added a new dimension to this debate. After these systems became capable of processing large amounts of data by analyzing it and proposing immediate solutions, questions were raised about the possibility of these systems replacing human leadership in the future.

The study focused on examining the stages of development of the European Union's policy with the Central Asian republics. Relations between the European Union and these republics date back more than a quarter of a century, as the Union recognized the independence of these republics on December 31, 1991. However, it did not show any significant interest in this region, for several reasons, including the lack of trust in the new leaderships, which represented an extension of the Soviet era, and the prevailing authoritarian rule in the region, which conflicted with the European Union's policy of spreading democracy and respecting human rights. On the other hand, the European Union was able to gradually strengthen its relations with the region's republics. Trade and diplomatic relations played an important role in increasing its influence on the region's republics, and can be considered the basic starting point for its relations with these republics. On this basis, trade relations and the launch of economic and security programs with the Central Asian republics received great attention from the European Union. As for the European Union's motives towards the Central Asian republics, there are several motives, including geopolitical, strategic, political and economic motives, as well as security motives, which played a major role in the European Union's orientation towards the Central Asian republics.

This study explores the United States’ foreign political engagement with Iraq following the occupation, focusing on the dissolution of the Iraqi armed forces and the subsequent reconstruction of a new Iraqi military force tailored to align with the strategic interests of the United States. The restructuring process resulted in the systemic weakening of the newly established Iraqi military due to the constrained and selective support provided by the United States, which substantially contributed to the destabilization of Iraq’s internal security landscape. Furthermore, the research examines the broader U.S. strategic objectives in the region, particularly those centered on safeguarding the security architecture of Israel.
After the fall of the former Iraqi regime, the United States of America sought to restructure the Iraqi armed forces and form them in a manner consistent with the requirements of the next phase, according to the American strategic perspective. These newly formed forces are entirely dependent on US military assistance, provided by US forces stationed in Iraq. Consequently, Iraqi forces are unable to wage war on terrorism without US support and assistance, including air cover for their operations to eliminate terrorism.
The United States established military bases in Iraq to secure its influence and maintain control over the region (the Middle East). However, in 2014, the United States initiated the formulation of a new regional strategy following the emergence of terrorism. This shift prompted an update of the Iraqi military doctrine to align with regional and international interests, in addition to enhancing counterterrorism efforts. The study encompassed two primary sections: the first addressed Iraq’s role within the U.S. military strategy, and the second examined the expansion of the deployment of U.S. military bases.

This study aims to analyze the phenomenon of duality in the application of the concept of human security within the United Nations' practices, through a case study of the Gaza Strip, which serves as a living example of the complexities involved in humanitarian intervention within an asymmetric conflict environment subject to intertwined political and security considerations. Although the United Nations promotes human security as a cornerstone of its contemporary interventions, reality reveals fundamental contradictions between discourse and practice, manifested in selectivity, the neutralization of impartiality, and the subjugation of humanitarian standards to international pressures.
The research employs a critical analytical methodology to deconstruct the relationship between declared humanitarian principles—such as neutrality, impartiality, and independence—and the mechanisms of actual intervention in Gaza. It indicates that the UN’s responses have often been governed by the interests of influential international powers rather than stemming from purely humanitarian commitments. The study also addresses the repercussions of this duality in terms of the erosion of the intrinsic value of human security, the loss of public trust in the international system, and the failure to provide effective protection to civilians.
The research concludes that overcoming this dilemma necessitates a reassessment of the institutional framework of the United Nations, the insulation of its humanitarian work from politicization, and the development of oversight tools that ensure consistency between principles and practice, especially in protracted and complex conflicts such as the Palestinian case. The Gaza experience, with its accumulated humanitarian tragedy, constitutes a revealing mirror of the structural deficiencies within the UN protection system and calls for a fundamental accountability of the concept of human security itself.