Sumer Journal

\"The research explores the emergence of prison architecture during the Islamic periods—
namely, the early Islamic era, the Umayyad era, and the Abbasid era—in Iraq,
which was the center of the Abbasid Caliphate. It relies on historical narratives that contain
occasional and brief references to the planning and architecture of prisons. These
references, though limited, help identify the most prominent Islamic prisons known in
major Iraqi cities such as Basra, Kufa, Wasit, and Baghdad. This study represents an
attempt to extract certain architectural and planning details from historical sources that
mention, describe, or allude incidentally to the architectural features of now-

The Mesopotamian civilization is considered one of the most prominent ancient civilizations
that arose in the ancient Near East. The results of archaeological excavations
have provided us with a number of artistic archaeological materials, such as drawings,
three-dimensional and bas-relief sculpture, as well as relief sculpture, and despite the
agreement of most researchers in the field of Archaeology, History and Art, that the first
examples of relief sculpture in Mesopotamia date back to Warkaa era. However, there is
another artistic example, dating back to prehistoric times, ‟the era of Samarra”. It was
found at the Qara Shinah site in the Dukan Basin, and the piece is currently on display in
the Iraqi Museum, which is a handle of a knife or another tool, made of bone, on which
a pair of animals are depicted in a walking pose. The research was divided into two axes,
the first was a brief introduction to the Stone Ages, their archaeological sites, and the
popular industries at that time, ‟particularly bone industries,” as well as the definition of
relief sculpture, while the second axis was concerned with describing, comparing, and
analyzing the artifact.

The research sheds light on a special and strange type of pottery, distinguished by its
rarity, as evidenced by the fact that what was found of this type does not exceed a few
examples, some of which were revealed in a complete form, while the other part did not
exceed pottery fragments. It also reflects the ability and skill that the potter has achieved,
and the mentality and the broad idea that he lived up to. These models varied between
jars and others, and the function they performed differed, whether for ritual, funerary,
decorative, or other purposes. In addition, they were not limited or confined to a specific
region, but rather spread across a wide area of Mesopotamia. It was not determined by
one era, but was distributed among different eras.

What drives us to choose such a topic is to shed light on one of the most important
cities in Iraq, which was of a great importance before the advent of Islam and continued
to be important in the Islamic era. However, it did not receive attention from researchers
in the Islamic era, and its artistic archaeological discoveries, which were the witness and
evidence of the continuity of this city, were not studied, in addition to the historical texts
that mention the city and confirm its importance during the Islamic era.

The preservation of antiquities is considered one of the most prominent responsibilities of the
archaeologist. The forms of preservation are diverse, among which preventive field conservation
is essential. This process is undertaken by the excavator when an artifact is revealed, transitioning
it from its burial environment to its exposure environment. Such measures serve to protect the artifact
and prevent environmental shock, which often leads to irreversible damage if the excavator
neglects the necessary procedures during the uncovering process within archaeological mounds.
This topic is therefore of great importance, as it highlights the precise scientific methods that ensure
the safeguarding of artifacts at the moment of discovery. Other forms of preservation involve
the systematic recording and documentation of each find at the excavation site, including assigning
inventory numbers, scientific photography, and producing detailed drawings of the discovered object,
along with full contextual descriptions.
Following documentation, artifacts must be carefully transported in rust-resistant wooden or
plastic boxes, cushioned with cotton and gauze to protect them from movement that could cause
breakage and potential loss. These finds are first transferred to the field laboratory and subsequently
to the museum, where they are stored until they can be examined by conservation and restoration
specialists.
At that stage, specialists employ precise and internationally recognized scientific methods to
carry out the necessary conservation treatments, thereby ensuring the artifact’s preservation and
prolonging its lifespan. This process allows scholars and researchers to conduct investigations,
produce academic studies, and ultimately make the artifacts available for exhibition in museums.

The aim of this research is to shed light on the symbolism of the hand and its connotations
in the beliefs of the people of Mesopotamia. The artist depicted extended human
forms—such as gods, kings, and worshippers—in the art of Mesopotamia, due to the
significant importance of the hand. The hand is considered one of the most vital parts of
the body and one of the oldest symbols associated with human civilization. It represents
creation and creativity, and hand gestures were used to express human emotions and behaviors.
Hand movements in Mesopotamian art varied depending on the identity and role
of the figure being represented. The most common gestures included those of blessing,
greeting, fertility, prayer, worship, authority, and power.

This research examines twenty duck-shaped weights obtained from the Iraqi Museum,
originating from various locations, periods, shapes, sizes, and materials, dating back
to different phases of Mesopotamian civilization. There is no doubt that these weights
played an effective and important role in markets and commercial centers, contributing
to fairness and balance between merchants and the public when weighing goods and
materials. Prior to the invention of weights and mathematical operations—and the use
of the sexagesimal system for calculations—barter had been the only available method
of exchange.The kings of Mesopotamia showed great interest in weights; they gave specific
names to some of them, such as ‟the weight of the state” and ‟the measures of Bab
al-Madina.” They also enacted laws regulating weights. To legitimize these standards,
certain gods were associated with weights and scales. The duck shape, in particular, was
linked to the god Bā’u.The people of Mesopotamia carved these weight ducks in various
forms: some bore inscriptions, others were plain, and some were marked with vertical
lines, which likely served as indicators of weight.

The research examines a group of rare discoveries revealed by the excavations at the
city of Nimrud (Kalhu), consisting of small-sized objects such as fragments, jars, and
vessels made of white alabaster, in addition to two larger pieces found in front of the
entrance to the first tomb, discovered in 1988. These items are now preserved in the Iraqi
Museum.

The research deals with studying group of figurines that were found in the area south
of Ishtar temple in Babylon during the excavation work carried by SBAH in 1999, which
dated back to the Hellenistic period which is considered one of the important periods in
the history and culture of ancient Iraq and particularly in Babylon which is a term given
to time that extend between 323-30BC.
The excavation in Babylon revealed various types of figurines in different shapes representing
aspects of religious and social life in Hellenistic period including female and
male figurines in various positions ,and animals figurines.
The research included studying the types of figurines and classifying them according to
their subject, describing each
figurine according to its type tracing the historical origins of each type and comparing
them with models from other sites within the time period. It is worth noting that manufacture
of figurines was common in ancient Iraq whether made of pottery, stone or metal
in various types and shapes starting from stone age.

The research paper tackles some Arabic and Syriac scripts that were discovered by an
archaeological excavation mission at the ruins of Al-Hirah archaeological site (Al-Najaf
international airport) in 2017-2018. There were eleven inscriptions, written using ink on
pottery fragments. The purports of the inscriptions of those texts are contrasted between
educational and orthographic purports on one hand and bilingual texts (Arabic and Syriac
texts) on the other hand. The majority of the population of Al-Hirah city at that historical
period was predominantly Christian Syriac, and there were some Arab Muslim tribes.
Additionally, there was a derogatory text written by someone to criticize the resident of
Al-Hairah, tarnishing his reputation. Those inscriptions had no dates, but they estimated
dates according to the style of the Arabic and Syriac scripts in the third, fourth, and fifth
centuries A.H/ the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries A.D.

In the early 1990s the two fragments of black stone making up the Tower of Babylon
stele with pictures of the ziggurat in Babylon and the king Nebuchadnezzar II were found
in the large open trench from the German excavations of Amran in 1900. The findspot
was about 20 m north of the Esagil temple in Babylon, but the level where it was discovered
is not Neo-Babylonian but later, possibly Parthian. The archaeological and historical
background of the stele is discussed, and the image of the Ziggurat on the stele
is considered. After 28 years in the Schøyen Collection Oslo, the stele is now in the Iraq
Museum in Baghdad.

The research deals with the results of the archaeological survey work for the sites that
were surveyed in Maysan Governorate for the season of the year 2023. The research was
divided into several axes, starting with determining the geographical location of the survey
area and water sources. The second axis dealt with the results of the survey work in
Amara district, the third axis dealt with the Ali Al-Gharbi district, while the fourth axis
dealt with the pottery of the surveyed area. The research also included lists, conclusions,
and reference.

Every civilization represents a nation measured by its civilization depth estimated at several
hundreds or thousands of years. Since the civilization depth of the Iraqi people is six thousand
years, Iraq is the home of civilization, the first source of inspiration, and the center of radiation
that is broadcast to the end of the earth. The first agricultural villages were built on its land.
Wherever there is stability, creativity is found. The early Iraqis invented the potter’s wheel and
were the first to invent means of documentation. In addition to that, they were the first to enact
laws and invent the principle of retaliation, which is represented by an eye for an eye and a tooth
for a tooth. The wheel of history has never stopped, and it is what linked yesterday with today.
If we go back a little to the prior- civilization era, we see that the man of Mesopotamia, who
inhabited caves in the Paleolithic Age in northern Iraq, such as the Hazar Murd and Zarzi caves,
for example, he himself began to think about developing life and advancing towards a better life
and easier living, so he began to descend to the steppe regions and actually began to live in mud
houses in agricultural communities. So he began to domesticate animals and cultivate crops himself.
The results of excavations in various sites, such as the ancient site of Jarmo, hav+e yielded
results.
These sites have been subjected to tampering like what happened with the Ka’ab hills, as we
received news from the Nineveh Antiquities Inspectorate stating: the appearance of archaeological
landmarks as a result of excavation and earthworks for the free zone in Fleifel, which led the
inspectorate to send a group of specialists to conduct surveys and investigations

This research focuses on the study and analysis of a Sumerian cuneiform text dating to
the Third Dynasty of Ur (2112–2004 BCE). The text documents the wages of a group of
workers in the city of Iri-Sag-Rik, which was considered one of the urban centers under
the central administration of Sumer during that period. It presents a vivid example of the
advanced administrative and economic system that characterized this era.
The text records food rations—such as barley, beer, and other items—as units of wages
granted to workers based on the nature of the work, gender, age, and social status. Cuneiform
texts documenting the daily wages and allowances of workers constitute a fundamental
source for understanding the economic and social structure of the Sumerian state.
This particular tablet is one of the confiscated (i.e., unprovenanced) texts preserved
in the Iraq Museum. Its dimensions are 14 × 9 cm. The text reveals a variety of labor
categories, including both men and women, with a clear record of differences in daily or
monthly wages granted to them.
It also highlights the allocation of workers across different productive sectors such as
agriculture, construction, and handicrafts. This reflects the central role played by the state
in regulating labor relations and the processes of production.

The reign of King Šulgi, the second king of the third dynasty of Ur, witnessed an
abundance of cuneiform texts that covered various aspects of economic life at that time,
including texts related to the allocation of quantities of fodder to livestock supervisors.
Therefore, our study sheds light on this aspect and clarify the mechanism of feed distribution,
its quantities, and the purpose of documenting it. Note that the text is one of the
texts confiscated for the benefit of the Iraq Museum.

The study focuses on a recently discovered Hatra line style Aramaic inscription located
in the central Euphrates River basin, in the Aramaic city of ḫindanu. This city was
referenced in Greek, Seleucid, and Aramaic cuneiform sources in addition to Assyrian
ones. The inscription’s remnants are currently known as the archaeological site (Tell
Al-Jabriya) and they trace the district of Al-Qaim in Anbar province, which located on
the borders west of Iraq. Additionally, the three-line inscription, pays tribute to a man
called (Fašal bin Ababu), in which he preys for all his companions. Based on the calligraphy
style, there are some similarities between this inscription and the texts found in the
southeast of Turkey, specifically in the upper Tigris and Euphrates island regions. These
inscriptions are named Sari and Hasan keyf, respectively.

Ishan Khalid is a large mound, located west modern town of AL-Shamia (Al-Qadisiyah
Governorate) in Iraq. It is excavated in 2007 and 2009, the result of the two seasons in
the site revealed several layers, the oldest of that layer dating to Neo-Babylonian period.
Many artifacts discovered in the site included pottery vessels , pottery coffin , seals, metal
vessels, metal figurines, carved stones, etc…One of the most important discoveries is
a collection of tablets dating to Neo-Babylonian period. These tablets included lexical
texts, sign lists, letters, contracts. In the contract tablets the name of Dūr-ša-Bīt-dakkūru
town is mentioned, it is the old name of Ishan Khalid in Neo-Babylonian period.

In 2023, excavations were resumed at the archaeological site of Borsippa, located in
the Babil Governate, central Iraq, near the modern city of Hillah. The primary focus was
to survey and map the Birs Nimrud monument and its surrounding urban landscape to
create a GIS-based, detailed cartographic representation, integrating all data from prior
excavations and expeditions. A secondary key focus involved the resumption of the
archaeological investigation of the Ezida Temple. Contrary to previous assumptions,
which attributed the Ezida Temple currently visible to Nebuchadnezzar II, recent reassessments
of the location of the foundation cylinder of Antiochos I, Soter, combined with
analyses of stratified findings, now suggest that this temple represents not only a Seleucid
foundation but that its ground plan is based on a Late Achaemenid period design.
Two trenches, designated Trench C and Trench D, were established for detailed excavation,
Trench C, located near the monumental gate of the Nabû Temple, confirmed
the level of the Seleucid foundation and revealed discrepancies in the dimensions of the
gate’s façade layout, alongside evidence of extensive reuse of materials, Trench D, positioned
along the northeastern outer façade, began exploring an earlier iteration of the
Ezida Temple, which likely dates to the Neo-Babylonian period, These findings underscore
once more the cultural continuity of Babylonian sacred architecture at one site and
emphasize the enduring significance of the cult of Nabû throughout the 1st millennium
BC.

An important result of the short excavation campaigns in (2022) and (2024) was that
research in Fāra is both possible and promising, despite the dramatic destruction of the
recent past. The combination of non-invasive methods—geophysics, survey, and aerial
photography—with limited, targeted excavations led to the first systematic documentation
of Early Dynastic II and IIIa period neighborhoods and houses, together with
the mobile finds they contained. The large building in the center probably represents
the temple, surrounded by planned streets. The discarded sealings of the ED II period
in trench Ide—long regarded as the hallmarks of the Mesilim period—turned out to be
waste from a neighboring building, which must have had administrative functions.

This article presents the cuneiform inscriptions discovered at Tello (ancient Girsu)
during the British Museum’s excavation seasons of autumn 2022, and spring and autumn
2023. The excavations at Tell V, also called Tablet Hill, led to the discovery of a large
group of cuneiform tablets dating from the Late Early Dynastic, Sargonic, Lagash II, and
Ur III periods. Most of the inscribed objects are broken and originate from French spoil
heaps as well as ancient construction fills. The new cuneiform tablets belong to the state
archives stored in the administrative center of ancient Girsu. Alongside the cuneiform
tablets, the team also found a group of seal impressions, envelopes, tags, and tablet basket
labels (pisan-dub-ba).

Cylinder seals are among the most prominent artistic artifacts left behind by the Mesopotamian
civilization. They have appeared since the dawn of this civilization, closely
linked to the daily life of ancient Iraqis, which they recorded in various ways. Different
scenes were depicted on the surface of these seals, reflecting the individual’s thought at
that time. When we speak of the most prominent scenes executed on the surface of the
seals, they often feature complex mythological creatures. My first thoughts go to mythology
and the profound intellectual dimension that inspired people to document myths
through artistic representation. All ancient civilizations were creative in their myths, and
among them was the Mesopotamian civilization, which blended mythological thought
with ancient religious beliefs. In this research, we will focus on one of the most significant
periods of Mesopotamian history: the Old Babylonian period. This era extends
from the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur (2004 BCE) to the end of the First Dynasty of
Babylon (1595 BCE).