Journal of Education and Scientific Studies

This research examines the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah in Orientalist thought, considering
it a major turning point in the approach of the Islamic state in Medina. It was the second
agreement concluded by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) – after the agreement with the Jews of Medina.
With his first and fiercest enemy, the infidels of Quraysh, this agreement, which neither the Prophet nor any of his companions had planned beforehand, yielded results that
elevated the status of the Islamic state in the Arabian Peninsula and granted freedom to
the Muslims. Moving and roaming among the Arab tribes without restriction or fear,
which the Almighty truly described as a “clear victory,” this victory faced criticism and
analysis from a number of Orientalists whose viewpoints differed from People differed
from one another in their approaches, orientations, and inclinations. Some considered the
peace treaty a political gain for the Prophet and his companions, the results of which they
saw over the coming years. Others saw the peace treaty as a truce that the Prophet, peace
be upon him, was forced into because he was unable to confront the Quraysh. He wanted
to use this peace treaty to gather his strength and reorganize his army for the possible
confrontation with the Quraysh

Galal Amin played an important role in intellectual life through his writings
and research after observing the significant changes occurring in society and the
varying policies adopted by the state, especially since he believes that whatever is written about certain intellectual issues at a specific time will be revisited
later. This is due to the possibility of new effects arising from those intellectual
issues. Galal Amin focused on two major intellectual issues: globalization and
democracy. Regarding globalization, he found it to be evolving and intertwining
in human life due to technological advancement and the rapid of communication
across continents. As for democracy, he wrote about it as potentially being fake
and hindered in a state due to an oppressive ruler or due to the distortion of the
ruler’s character, making their true nature different from their slogans and promises.

This research explores the role of tribalism in Arab society after the
death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). Despite Islam’s
effort to replace tribal loyalty with faith-based unity, tribal ties remained
strong. After the Prophet’s death, several tribes, such as Bani Hanifa, Bani
Asad, Ghatafan, and Kinda, used the moment to rebel against central authority, leading to the rise of apostasy movements across the Arabian Peninsula.

Ali Yata ( 1920_ 1997 ) represents a model of the educated politician
who combined Marxist intellectual formation with national commitment.
His upbringing under colonialism and exposure to leftist thought in France
significantly shaped his early political awareness. His intellectual background shaped his democratic and social vision and was clearly reflected
in his nationalist positions, particularly on the issue of the Moroccan Sahara, where he defended the unity of the national territory from his party and) parliamentary positions. Thus, Ali Yata represents a model of the
struggling intellectual who combined leftist political thought with national
commitment.

This research deals with aspects of the military, defensive, and offensive methods employed by the Muslims in their conquests, especially in
the Levant(Bilad Al-Sham), and the demolition of abandoned fortresses to
prevent their reuse by the enemy. It also addresses the defensive measures
relied upon to protect cities—such as the construction of ditches and walls
and the employment of defensive equipment like shields and helmets. The
digging of the trench during the Battle of the Trench (Ghazwat al-Ahzab)
represents a prominent example of defensive innovation in Islamic history.

Since the beginning of 1958 Lebanon, has witnessed the emergence of an
American-French competition by separating a group of factors. During the era of
President Camille Chamoun, Lebanon entered under the American umbrella after
the American military landing in 1958, taking advantage of the Lebanese crisis,
and President Camille Chamoun requested assistance from it to intervene according to the Eisenhower principle. The United States of America has deservedly
gained a privileged position on the Lebanese arena and began to compete strongly with France to displace it for its privileged position there, as it did in many
countries of the Middle East, despite the arrival of French President Charles de
Gaulle in 1958 and his attempt to draw up a new strategy. France, however, faced
it with intense American competition until the American role in Lebanon reached
by isolating and installing the President of the Lebanese Republic to preserve its
interests in this country and to compete with the French side.

The term qata’i, refers to lands that are not owned by a specific individual and are
allocated by the Caliph for the purpose of utilizing them for agricultural growth or the
construction of houses. Their economic importance lies in agricultural growth according
to an Islamic economic approach. Their aim is to raise the economic status of Muslims and
increase the revenues of the Muslim treasury while increasing the area of agricultural land.
This will achieve economic prosperity for the Arab Islamic society according to specific
conditions set by Islamic law, including that they are allocated by the Caliph as if they were
uncultivated land, and that their taxes are paid to the Muslim treasury. It also emphasizes
the importance of utilizing them continuously and specifying their type in order to achieve
economic benefit. Furthermore, their legitimacy was derived from the Holy Quran and the
noble Sunnah of the Prophet. Thus, in the history of agricultural economics, the qata’i,
achieved economic benefit for the farmer in particular, and for the revenues of the Muslim
treasury in the Arab Islamic state in general.

The research reviews the establishment and historical development
of Cairo University and its role in laying the academic and administrative foundations upon which other Egyptian universities - such as Fayoum University, Beni-Suef University, and Mansoura University - have
relied. The study concludes that Cairo University has been, and continues to be, the cornerstone of higher education in Egypt, contributing to
the dissemination of academic thought, the consolidation of scientific
research, and the strengthening of national identity through its educational and cultural mission

Prince Jochi was the eldest son of Genghis Khan. Various accounts exist regarding his birth and the authenticity of his lineage; nevertheless, he enjoyed the support and affection of his father, Genghis Khan. He
was characterized by military leadership qualities that combined bravery, shrewdness, and composure, which
qualified him to be a military commander and enabled him to achieve victory in most of the battles he led. He
participated in numerous campaigns, including those against China, the Khwarazmian state, the lands of the
Rus, and the Bulgars, and victory was often on his side.
This study demonstrates that Jochi played a pivotal role in the construction of the Mongol Empire, particularly in its western part. His military achievements contributed to the conquest of new regions and reinforced
the empire’s expansionist and administrative policies. Jochi’s policy was distinguished by sound judgment in
administering the regions or cities he conquered, as he appointed governors from among their own people who
were loyal to the Mongols. Moreover, he often refrained from destroying cities in order to keep their urban
centers safe from devastation; he would send a messenger advising them and calling upon them to surrender.
Despite the fact that he did not officially ascend the throne due to the opposition of his brother Chagatai,
who questioned the legitimacy of his lineage, Jochi was in practice the founder of one of the strongest branches of the Mongol Empire in the lands of the Rus, known as the Golden Horde or the Kipchak lands. Shortly
thereafter, Jochi died under mysterious circumstances, and the accounts differ as to whether he was poisoned
by his father, Genghis Khan, or died as a result of illness. Consequently, he was deprived of succeeding his
father to the throne. However, his political and military legacy remained influential, as his sons—especially
Batu and Berke—assumed power after him and later played a significant role in history

The study of the Vietnamese issue and the stance of Egyptian journalists on
it is one of the important studies that demonstrate the extent of interest of the
Arab press in supporting the oppressed, particularly the stance of the Egyptian
press and journalists on the Vietnamese issue that occupied the entire world,
where the destruction and devastation resulting from the American-Vietnamese
war that erupted in the early sixties. The Vietnamese issue is considered one of
the important issues that occurred in the world, reflecting the foreign policy of
the United States towards developing countries, especially after World War II.
This issue garnered the attention of all the peoples of the world, particularly
the peoples of the Arab and Islamic world, and it left a significant impact on
some countries in Asia and Africa, both politically and economically.

This research presents the impact of Protestantism, as a religious reform movement
that emerged in Europe in the sixteenth century, on the formation and crystallization of
modern Jewish Zionist thought. It analyzes the theological and political roots adopted
by a number of Protestant thinkers regarding the Jews and their return to the land of
Palestine.
Protestantism, especially in its Calvinist form, began to reinterpret Old Testament
prophecies in a way that made the “return of the Jews” to Palestine one of the condi�
tions for the approaching end of the world and the beginning of the happy millennium.
From the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, a number of thinkers, such
as Brightman and Finch, adopted a religious vision linked to the return of the Jews,
viewing this return as part of a divine plan to achieve universal salvation. With the de�
velopment of Protestant thought, this vision also began to take on a political dimension,
and clear support for the Jews emerged from Protestant circles, particularly in England
and Germany. Protestants saw the art of supporting the return of the Jews as a means to
achieve religious and political stability, while fulfilling biblical prophecies

This research examines the development of Islamic architecture in the city of Mosul, with a particular focus on mosques as the most significant religious and urban landmarks that shaped the city’s cultural identity. Mosul’s strategic location on the western
bank of the Tigris River, at the crossroads of major trade and military routes, granted it
a pivotal role in the political, economic, and cultural history of Mesopotamia.
Architecturally, the research highlights the uniqueness of Mosul’s religious buildings, represented by its major congregational mosques: the Umayyad (Ancient) Mosque,
the Great al-Nuri Mosque, and the Mujahidi Mosque. These structures embodied a distinctive blend of functionality and aesthetics, characterized by urban planning inspired
by the early Islamic model, the use of local construction materials such as stone, brick,
and gypsum, and the incorporation of refined decorative elements, Kufic inscriptions,
and cylindrical minarets that together shaped a distinctive architectural identity.

Historical studies of the Abbasid era have paid particular attention to the
scientific aspect, as it served as a means of scientific and cultural exchange
between Arab and Islamic cities, especially Ardabil during the Abbasid period (132-656 AH). Culture reached its zenith in this era, and there is no
doubt that various sciences flourished in the cities of the Islamic East, particularly in Ardabil. Renowned scholars emerged there in various scientific
fields, including jurisprudence, hadith, Quranic readings, history, and other
disciplines that contributed to the advancement of the scientific movement.
Among them were narrators, hadith scholars, and thinkers, who became
known by the title “al-Ardabili,” after the city of Ardabil.

After Rome Succeeded in arranging its internal affairs 753BC, and spreading security
and order within its kingdom, in other words, after establishing itself as a state within its
own territory, it began to aspire to achieve its expansionist dream, which involved annexing as many lands as possible to benefit from their resources and people. To achieve its
desired goal, it began mobilizing forces towards the eastern and even European regions
whenever the opportunity arose. Through this, it envisioned the perpetuation of its position
and its exclusive and absolute control over these countries for a long time. To this end, it
sought to monopolize this task and consequently engaged in numerous battles, most of
which it won. As a result, it achieved its ambitions, as the regions of the ancient east, in
addition to Britain, Gaul, and many other ancient European states, became subject to it
for a considerable period. Through this control, it began to implement a policy of Romanization to integrate these states as much as possible and make them dependent territories
from which it could benefit. This led to the birth of ideas both in rome and in the states it
controlled. This resulted in a process of influence and being influenced between the two
sides, even though rome succeeded in spreading its Romanization in these, regions more
than in acquiring their established customs

The research aimed to study the military fortifications in ancient Greece, with a focus on the model of
the city of Sparta, as one of the most important and powerful military cities in ancient Greek history. He also
shed light on the nature of these fortifications, their defensive importance, and their role in strengthening the
strength of the Spartan state, in addition to reviewing the defensive methods and military tactics used at the
time. The importance of the research stems from its association with a distinct military and cultural history,
where military fortifications were one of the main factors in the strength of Greek cities, especially Sparta. The
research also contributes to highlighting the relationship between geography and political, social and military
systems, and shows how the strict military organization in Sparta made it a model to be followed in ancient
military history, and the researcher relied on the analytical historical method, by extrapolating historical texts
and previous studies, and analyzing the development of military fortifications through Greek times, with the
help of primary sources and documented books. The descriptive approach was also employed To describe
the fortifications, and the analytical approach to understand their role and impact in strengthening the military dominance of the city of Sparta, the research reached a number of results, the most important of which
were: Sparta relied on its naturally fortified geographical location, which reduced its need for huge walls, and
focused on building a strong and organized army since childhood. Its military system was characterized by
strict discipline, with clever exploitation of the terrain, and the use of various fortifications such as towers and
defensive points. Social and military laws played a pivotal role in preparing every citizen to become a soldier
ready to defend About the state. Despite its military superiority, it suffered from the weakness of cavalry, but
nevertheless became a global model of strength and military discipline. It introduced to the world the concept
of a fortified “city-state” with full military independence.