Journal Of the College of law /Al-Nahrain University

The reward is one of the financial effects resulting from the end of the contract, and it is a legal right assigned to the worker upon the end of his service by the employer. The right to the reward was not stated in an absolute manner, but rather the legislator restricted it to a certain amount and certain conditions and cases of entitlement and deprivation mentioned in the provisions of the law. In this context, we see the necessity of amending it. The amount of the reward is because the amount specified by the Iraqi Labor Law is not proportional to the effort exerted by the worker, which contributed to the success and increase The production of the project, so we see an increase in the amount of the reward and an increase of one month’s wages for each year instead of two weeks for each year of service. We also see that in these cases of deprivation of a reward, it is justice other than depriving the worker of it when he is in dire need of it after the end of his contract and his remaining without pay.

A contract is the credible proof of bilateral actions if it is done by simply exchanging the expression of the two parties’ identical wills. However, this does not prevent the establishment of legal centers from being the subject of the convergence of more than two wills, as many applications of legal relations have been found in which a (third party) appears, influencing the field of establishing legal centers and arranging the effects on those centers. Many examples of these applications have been found, whether in legislation or in reality, which requires studying them and clarifying whether these applications are considered an application of the contract theory, such that these relationships remain subject to the provisions of the general theory of obligation (contract theory), or whether they are applications of a new theory that the legislator has deviated from the traditional theory..

The provision of credit is no longer a casual event that a person can do without by relying on aid, charity, or donations. Instead, it has become a necessity of modern life on one hand, and a binding obligation on the part of the credit institution providing it on the other—an obligation that cannot be avoided except for a compelling reason. Requesting credit has become a right for the applicant, something indispensable and irreplaceable in our current era.
On the other hand, credit institutions, despite all their financial capabilities, have become incapable of meeting the growing demand for financing. No single institution, whether governmental or private, can independently satisfy society’s increasing need for credit—even if the state itself assumes the responsibility for providing it.
Credit institutions are diverse, as are their financing purposes and the laws governing them. This diversity results in differing priorities for their financing operations, credit provision, and dispute resolution due to variations in their nature and modes of operation. Some of these institutions are governmental administrative bodies, while others are privately owned entities.
Among them are institutions responsible for crafting and directing the country's monetary policy, such as the monetary authority represented by the central bank, and others that shape the country’s fiscal policy, like the financial authority represented by the Ministry of Finance. There are also monetary institutions such as commercial banks, which receive depositors' funds, and financial institutions that rely on their own funding sources, such as specialized banks.
The more these entities are financed, the higher the demand for their services becomes.
Modern financial legislations have reached a satisfactory solution to meet the growing need for credit by channeling societal funds into the very institutions that provide credit. As a result, society has effectively become both debtor and creditor to itself, financing itself through mechanisms resembling multi-layered circular movements.
Credit institutions are funded by the returns they generate from investing people’s money in investment funds, securities portfolios, and investment trusts—structures well-established in English law but unfamiliar in civil law countries like France, Egypt, and Iraq. Additionally, there are also credit obligations through which credit institutions obtain periodic returns by establishing them. Finally, there is the securitization of debt, through which these institutions can rapidly secure funding based on the credit they had previously extended.
These are all complex matters, the majority of which are not yet addressed by Iraqi law at present. Therefore, we present to the Iraqi legislator the issue of financing these institutions, in order to fill the legislative gap and to encourage the development of the legal framework for a policy of refinancing Iraqi credit institutions by the very society they serve. This would establish a circular financing system through which society finances itself — the most effective and beneficial form of funding.

The use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in digital and cross-border environments under private international law presents increasingly complex legal issues, particularly in the areas of conflict of laws and international jurisdiction.This complexity is exacerbated by the absence of a unified legal framework or binding international standards, as well as the lack of a precise determination of the location where the harm or legal act related to AI occurs. As a result, it becomes difficult to apply traditional conflict-of-laws rules, leading to multiple competing and conflicting legal systems and the absence of a clear criterion for selecting the applicable law. Furthermore, determining the competent court is challenging due to the non-territorial nature of AI. Courts may even decline jurisdiction on the grounds of a “lack of territorial connection,” which hinders access to justice—especially in cases where the harm is distributed across multiple countries.The use of AI in the international context reveals a significant legislative gap in the rules governing conflict of laws and international jurisdiction. It also demonstrates the inability of traditional private international law mechanisms to effectively address disputes arising from non-human entities operating in a decentralized and transnational

This research, entitled (The crime of opening rehabilitation institutes for people with disabilities and special needs without a license), deals with an important issue related to some people opening institutes or private homes concerned with the care and education of these people without following the legal procedures drawn up by the legislator regarding the necessity of obtaining an official license, and the crime is one of the innovations of the criminalization policy adopted by the law of the first amendment to the law Rights of Persons with Disabilities and Special Needs Law No. 11 of 2024 in Article 20/Secondly repeated pursuant to Article (13). We have addressed the subject according to a plan of two chapters, the first of which we devoted to examining the elements of the crime, while the second chapter was devoted to examining the penal effects of the crime, to conclude our research with a conclusion that includes the most important results and proposals reached by the research that we hope the Iraqi legislator will listen to, and from that we recommended adding the penalty of imprisonment and expanding the scope of criminal behavior to include the occurrence of the activity intentionally or negligently.

This research addresses the provisions of vacant succession belonging to foreigners. We examined the subject in two sections. The first one addressed the concept of vacant succession within the framework of private international law, while the second section was devoted to examining the rightful claimant to vacant succession belonging to foreigners. Through this research, we found that the state is entitled to the assetes of a foreigner if it is located within its territory, and comparative laws almost unanimously consider the principle of territorial sovereignty the basis for the state's entitlement to this inheritance. The study also demonstrated that Iraqi law differs from other comparative laws in that it lacks rules regulating the management and liquidation of foreigner's succession. This succession presents numerous difficulties in determining it befor its liquidation. Furthermore, the law does not address the hypothesis of an Iraqi's vacant succession, which leaves financial assets abroad. The research also reached a number of recommendations, the most important of which is the enactment of an independent legal regulation addressing the procedures for managing vacant succession, whether belonging to an Iraqi or a foreigner.

individuals’ rights and ensure access to goods and services that meet recognized standards of quality and safety. These associations represent the first line of defense for consumers, working to advocate for their interests before relevant authorities and to address practices or activities that may cause them harm, whether by raising public awareness of consumer rights or by intervening to handle complaints and violations affecting their interests. They differ from governmental bodies and regulatory agencies in terms of their nature and objectives, as they focus on the social and legal dimensions of consumer advocacy, while governmental entities assume direct supervisory and regulatory functions.
The Consumer Protection Council plays an important role in supervising and coordinating the work of these associations, formulating general policies aimed at consolidating consumer protection principles, and regulating the relationship between sellers and buyers to achieve balance in the market. The Council also contributes to promoting transparency and preventing unfair trade practices by establishing regulations and measures that limit price manipulation or commercial fraud, thereby ensuring a safer and more equitable market environment for all parties.
The significance of these associations is evident in their ability to address problems that may arise between consumers and providers of goods and services, as well as to remedy deficiencies in the markets. This directly contributes to enhancing individuals’ awareness of their rights and obligations. Through their active role and cooperation with the Consumer Protection Council, these associations can serve as a cornerstone in creating a fair economic environment that fosters trust between consumers and traders, while supporting market stability in the long term.

The offense of relatives failing to present a mentally ill defendant after the cessation of danger is regulated by the Iraqi Mental Health Law No. (1) of 2005 in Articles (16) and (18/Third), which impose an obligation and sanction. Its importance lies in ensuring treatment and protecting society, yet the law shows gaps in defining the offense and enforcement, requiring reforms to safeguard both patient and community.

The Competition Affairs Council is an independent regulatory body that aims to ensure fair competition in the market. Its primary role is to monitor and prevent monopolistic practices or agreements that may harm competitiveness, as well as combat any abuse or use of economic power centers. The Council investigates complaints related to violations of competition laws, and imposes penalties on violating companies. In addition, the Council works to raise awareness of the importance of fair competition and advise the government on policies that affect markets. Iraq is one of the countries that approved more than a decade ago the Competition and Anti-Monopoly Law No. 14 of 2010, but this law was not activated and the Council was not formed until more than thirteen years after its approval due to the unstable circumstances that our country went through. The Competition Council was formed in March of the year 2023, and this study came to show the effectiveness of the procedures of the Competition Affairs Council in controlling the market and to show the weaknesses and defects in the law and to present proposals to develop effective solutions to amend the law in a manner that is compatible with the Iraqi market, as it was shown how the Competition Council was formed and what is taken from the texts related to that, and we also showed the effectiveness of the Council's procedures in performing its duties by exercising its supervisory powers in the market and to show the defects in that and to present the most effective legal solutions in this regard, and at the end of the study we presented a set of results and recommendations.

The legal security of employees is one of the most fundamental issues affecting the stability of both governmental and private institutions in light of the economic and political developments witnessed in the world today. Legal security is the foundation for achieving social justice and job stability, ensuring employees' financial and administrative rights within a clear and stable legislative framework. Budget appendices play a crucial role in regulating the relationship between the state and its employees, as these appendices include details that directly and indirectly impact the level of legal security for employees. In Iraq, the appendices of the federal general budget serve as a primary tool for regulating government spending, which affects the reality of employees due to the provisions that amend, repeal, or suspend the implementation of existing laws. This can impact the rights of public employees, increasing the state of legal uncertainty faced by society in general and public employees in particular.

Our study addressed the definition of an arbitrator. We found that the legislator did not directly address this definition. Legal jurisprudence defined the arbitrator as someone entrusted with resolving a dispute submitted to arbitration. He may be a single person or a group of individuals. The parties to the dispute may agree on his appointment, which is the original principle based on the principle of the parties' free will. Alternatively, he may be selected by the judiciary.
Arbitration resembles the state's ordinary judiciary. Arbitration aims to create a significant social and economic function, namely, peaceful coexistence between disputing parties in the future, in addition to achieving justice. It constitutes a form of private justice established by the parties to a dispute outside of the mandatory framework; it is an alternative solution for resolving disputes outside state courts, i.e., without litigation.
The research idea revolves around the implementation of international commercial arbitration awards, and we addressed it with comparative legislation.It became clear to us that the Iraqi position is unclear, and there is ambiguity in the legal articles regarding whether they apply to international or domestic arbitration. Likewise, the law of implementing foreign awards in Iraq differs in the extent to which it includes the implementation of international arbitration awards or is limited to the implementation of foreign judicial awards.

Today, the world is witnessing a rapid digital transformation that directly impacts various sectors of public administration, particularly in the area of government contracts and investments. In this context, the issue of extending government contracts represents one of the most significant challenges that necessitate the development of legal and administrative procedures to align with the demands of the digital age. This research aims to investigate the possibility of aligning the Implementation Instructions for Government Contracts No. (2) of 2014 with the principles of digital transformation, focusing on the contract extension process as a vital stage that requires transparency, speed, high efficiency, and legal timeframes.
Article / 5/ Second / D/ of the Instructions for the Implementation of Government Contracts No. 2 of 2014 states that the committee responsible for reviewing and approving the extension requests for the contractual period is the Central Committee.
The research provides an analysis of the legal and administrative framework governing these instructions, highlighting the main challenges faced by governmental entities when applying extensions according to traditional procedures, including slow processes, paper redundancy, and difficulties in tracking and monitoring. The research also reviewed international experiences in automating government contract procedures, pointing out the benefits of using digital platforms to facilitate extensions, achieve legal compliance, and reduce administrative waste of time and effort. The research proposes the adoption of an integrated digital system that allows for the submission of extension requests, approvals, and the electronic retention of records, In full alignment with the relevant statutory provisions without the need for substantive amendments, while providing technical solutions that ensure data security and ease of use. It also calls for the updating of some administrative interpretations of the current legal texts to support this transition smoothly, The digitization of stop and extension mechanisms represents a qualitative leap in the implementation of government contract execution instructions, enhancing the ability of institutions to proactively interact with execution challenges within a strict legal framework that balances the requirements of achievement and controls on public spending. In this way, the ideal convergence of technology and sound management is achieved in the service of the public interest.

Judicial reasoning in Iraq is considered a guideline and cannot be officially relied upon, despite its ability to find solutions to disputes brought before the courts for which legislation has failed to provide appropriate solutions. Judicial reasoning is divided into two types: the first, judicial, relates to the judiciary and its functions, encompassing all rulings and decisions issued by a judicial body. The second, based on the judge's intellectual and creative side, demonstrates an effective role and discretionary power in attempting to resolve all disputes presented to him by removing ambiguity or vagueness and addressing legislative shortcomings by deriving legal provisions. Through the effective and fundamental role of the judiciary given that the judiciary is above all other authorities and that interference in its work is prohibited it is important to address all forms of corruption in the country, most notably bribery crimes in government institutions, which are considered crimes that impact economic, social, administrative, and political factors. It is worth noting that each factor in bribery encompasses a set of motives, depending on specific environmental, social, and administrative circumstances.

The idea of the research topic revolves around the diversity and multiplicity of the rules of private international law in terms of their nature and scope of work, and this is reflected in the diversity of confrontation due to the diversity of corruption, and whereas most of these rules are of an objective nature that work to provide immediate, direct solutions, some of them are of a procedural nature, such as the referential rules that are satisfied with attributing the presented relationship to a specific law according to the attribution criterion included in the rule, and since the first rules are diverse, the confrontation takes on a diverse nature, so the central problem of the research is focused on the existence of two groups of rules: non-specialized rules to confront corruption, and we will work to demonstrate their effectiveness and activate them in this direction, including the rules of nationality and residence, and rules related to forms of international conflict of legislative and judicial jurisdictions. The question that arises here is: Is it possible to invest all the rules from both groups to confront all types of corruption? The answer to this question varies between two hypotheses: the first relates to flexible rules that are adaptable to confrontation, and the second relates to rigid and non-adaptive rules. This can only be revealed by tracing the rules and identifying those that are suitable for effective and flexible confrontation, and the possibility of adapting rigid rules according to the type of corruption, whether administrative, financial, moral, or complex.
The research also aims to activate and activate the objective rules of private international law in combating corruption by identifying the types of rules that are appropriate for each type of corruption and the suitability of some of them to confront all types of corruption, directly or indirectly. This can then be effectively employed in this confrontation, highlighting the role of each rule in this field, and identifying the shortcomings and gaps in relevant Iraqi legislation, as well as the rigid rules that are not adaptable to confrontation, and the possibility of softening them. This will be reflected in increasing the productive capacity of some rules, including nationality rules and residency rules.
Keywords: Diversity of private international law rules, validity of rules, nationality rules, flexibility

Provisional justice is a judicial mechanism, regulated by the Iraqi Civil Procedure Law (Articles 151-153), allowing judges to issue temporary decisions for urgent matters to protect rights without affecting the dispute's merits. These orders are characterized by their swiftness and lack of adversarial proceedings; they do not possess the force of res judicata, and while subject to reconsideration before the issuing court, the reconsideration decision is generally appealable.
However, Provisional Orders issued by the Federal Supreme Court possess a unique character. Despite the absence of a direct constitutional provision governing them, the Court derives its authority from its constitutional role as the guardian of the Constitution and its internal regulations. By virtue of Article (94) of the 2005 Constitution, these orders become final and binding on all authorities, granting them exceptional power and a broad, general impact beyond the immediate parties.
The Federal Supreme Court issues these orders within the context of major constitutional cases, serving as a preventative tool to avert grave or irreversible damages that might result from implementing potentially unconstitutional laws, pending the final resolution of the original lawsuit. While adopting procedural aspects from the Civil Procedure Law, the Court's decision on a reconsideration of these orders is final and not subject to cassation, underscoring its supreme authority and ensuring the effectiveness and swift application of its decisions to uphold the paramount constitutional interest.

The main idea of this research is to find a new approach in law that supports or replaces the traditional approach, provided that it is based on sound legal logic. This new approach has mechanisms and ideas that completely differ from the traditional one. It represents a real revolution against the ideas, concepts, and foundations that govern the conflict of laws and jurisdiction. It seeks to develop the true concepts and foundations of the legislative and judicial environment. This cannot be achieved without a new and flexible approach that moves away from rigid concepts and enjoys logic and realism, away from theoretical application, in order to apply realistic justice in both legislation and the application of law. Law is closely related to reality, and the primary goal of this approach is to integrate law with reality. The main motivation for adopting this approach is to restore the spirit of the law and lay the necessary foundations for correcting judgments and generating new, more effective legal rules. Legal standards in private international law are variable and unstable due to changing circumstances and details specific to each case, especially concerning alimony, where each case has unique details and circumstances. By resorting to the purposive approach, each case is decided and assessed according to its circumstances and details, not relying on fixed standards applied to all cases, but rather depending on the law\'s ability to achieve the best and most appropriate outcome for the benefit of the minor.

Here is an accurate and academic English translation of your text, along with five suggested keywords: Title: The Theory of Unforeseen Circumstances in Administrative Contracts and Its Applications after Economic and Health CrisesThis study addresses the theory of unforeseen circumstances in administrative contracts, with a focus on its applications in the aftermath of economic and health crises, particularly the COVID-19 pandemic, which significantly impacted administrative and economic activities. The research emphasizes that administrative contracts possess a higher degree of flexibility in dealing with exceptional circumstances compared to civil contracts, due to their direct connection with the public interest.The paper demonstrates how the COVID-19 crisis triggered a legal debate over whether it should be classified as an unforeseen circumstance or a force majeure event, compelling public authorities and contractors to gain a deeper understanding of their legal frameworks.The study also highlights the interplay between the principle of legality and the principle of continuity of public services, and the mechanisms through which economic equilibrium can be restored in a contract disrupted by such unforeseen events.The research examines the position of Iraqi jurisprudence and judiciary regarding these circumstances, supplemented with comparative legal perspectives. It further explains how the administration can exercise its exceptional powers to terminate or amend contracts, in accordance with the principles of justice and legality.It concludes that the continuity of administrative contracts amid such challenges requires legal and judicial flexibility that safeguards the weaker contracting party without compromising the public interest. The study also sheds light on the role of the judiciary in overseeing the administration's exercise of these extraordinary powers.The paper concludes with findings that underscore the importance of promoting awareness of the doctrines of unforeseen circumstances and force majeure, and of developing clear legislation to support administrative contracts in facing modern emergencies and crises.

The concept of civil liability has undergone a fundamental evolution, shifting from its traditional basis primarily on establishing the elements of fault, damage, and the causal relationship between them, to a broader framework that embraces a preventive role aimed at avoiding harm before it occurs. Civil liability is no longer confined merely to proving these traditional elements; rather, it now encompasses preventive mechanisms and procedures that contribute to the protection of rights and the prevention of damages. The significance of this study lies in the ongoing doctrinal and legal debate regarding the necessity of applying all traditional elements of liability or limiting their application to some, particularly in light of the principle of prevention and its impact on the establishment of civil liability according to the provisions of Iraqi Civil Law. Moreover, the study aims to analyze recent developments in the elements of civil liability and to compare relevant legislative advancements, with a focus on the role of the principle of prevention in the evolution of this liability. The study also discusses practical applications that underscore the importance of expanding the scope of civil liability to include prudence and caution, thereby reducing potential harm to individuals and society. Furthermore, the study reviews the approaches of Iraqi civil law and Islamic jurisprudence in this context, striving to highlight legislative transformations that reflect a contemporary trend toward protecting rights by preventing harm before it occurs. This enhances the preventive effectiveness of civil liability within modern legislation.

Evidence in cyber drug crimes is a contemporary legal issue facing unprecedented challenges in judicial systems due to the complex and evolving nature of electronic evidence, which requires an integrated technical and legal approach to ensure its integrity and the legality of its admissibility procedures before courts. This necessitates developing the legal framework in line with technological developments and confronting the serious repercussions of drug crimes committed via cyberspace. Actual achievement in combating cyber drug crimes and achieving criminal justice requires building an integrated system that combines updating legislation, enhancing technical capabilities, and professionalizing judges and experts, while adopting precise standards that unify the acceptance of electronic evidence and preserve it in a way that leaves no room for individual interpretations or manipulation. This enhances confidence in the judicial system and curbs attempts to challenge or compromise the integrity of evidence, while ensuring a balance between the rights of the accused and the duties of investigation versus technical procedures and electronic evidence paths.

The administrative authority enjoys broad discretion in managing public service affairs and making decisions that affect the fate of public employees. Among these powers is the authority to transfer employees to meet its organizational and administrative needs, ensuring the smooth operation of work and achieving the public interest. This authority constitutes a fundamental part of the administration’s role in enhancing organizational efficiency and allocating personnel in line with its priorities and strategies.
However, with such broad discretion, oversight is imposed on how the administration exercises its powers across various legal systems to ensure that such powers, particularly in matters of employee transfers, are not misused. In this context, judicial review emerges as a key mechanism for protecting the rights of public employees and ensuring the administration’s adherence to the law.
Administrative courts play a crucial role in upholding the principle of legality, thereby reinforcing the stability of the administrative system and promoting a fair and transparent work environment. Thus, the role of the administrative judiciary in reviewing transfer decisions is vital, as it ensures that such decisions are legally sound and based on objective and reasonable grounds.

The entry into force of any law is a necessary condition for its implementation. This matter generally poses no difficulty, given the existence of constitutional rules that govern the life cycle of legislation—from its inception in embryonic form, through its promulgation, and until its repeal and departure from the legal system of the state. However, general amnesty laws possess a distinct nature that may raise—and indeed has raised in practice—issues concerning their entry into force and implementation. The question arises as to whether the provisions of such laws may be implemented immediately upon their approval by the legislature, or whether ratification and promulgation by the head of state are required, or even whether all these steps are insufficient unless the law is published in the official gazette. These inquiries give rise to a legal issue concerning the entry into force and implementation of general amnesty laws—one which necessitates a conclusive legal stance.
Nevertheless, the methodology of legal research requires, as a starting point, a definition of general amnesty laws through an explanation of their concept and an examination of the legal effects they entail. To understand when such laws enter into force, it is necessary to examine the procedures governing their enforceability, including whether they may have retroactive effect, and the extent to which they are subject to the general rules governing the retroactivity of laws more favorable to the accused.
Only after addressing these matters can the discussion proceed to the implementation of general amnesty laws—which is, of course, distinct from their entry into force. There exists a general rule governing the implementation of these laws; however, the question remains whether such laws may be implemented solely upon their approval by the legislature, and before promulgation or publication. Conversely, one may also question whether they may be implemented after approval and mere promulgation, yet prior to publication.
We have reached a conclusion by reference to the constitutional and legal rules in force within the state’s legal system, in a manner that avoids the emergence of disputes regarding the implementation of general amnesty laws. This is especially relevant given that the Iraqi legislator has exercised its authority to enact such laws on more than one occasion—and may well do so again in the future, which is not unlikely given our current legislative reality and the approach of our legislature.

The right to health is one of the fundamental human rights. The Iraqi constitution recognized clearly the right to health and emphasized on the commitment of the government to safeguard it by providing high standard healthcare services to everyone. Nowadays poor public healthcare services leading to the violation of the right to health in our society. Despite legal recognition still Kurdistan region government not take care about the quality of healthcare services and governing system require reforms to meet health needs. The objective of the study is to examine the role of the government to protect the right to health and analyzing existing legal framework for health sector governance to identify legal gaps, and other health related challenges, especially in public hospitals in Garmian area. The study combined qualitative and quantitative methods, doctrinal approach used to get qualitative data through library-based sources including books, journal articles, reports etc. Furthermore, quantitative data also collected by distributing list of questions through emailing to the special respondents which include 492 lecturers from the Garmian University to evaluate the situation of the healthcare services in Garmian area as a case study. The results of the study indicates that, the right to health not preserved well in particularly in the study area, lack of essential healthcare services is problematic issue for the patients such as insufficient number of doctors, modern devices, building, medicine etc. Therefore, the study recommends to take stepping stone towards the development of the health right protection for everyone, by enhancing healthcare services including sufficient access to medicine, professional doctors consulting, and modern healthcare infrastructure etc.

The concept of guarantee is no longer confined to traditional forms of security, both personal and real, which are based on legal systems such as suretyship, mortgage, and lien. Rather, this concept has transcended its traditional boundaries, becoming verifiable through contracts whose subject matter is work or ownership, and even contracts whose function is limited to benefit.
For example, an agency contract may, in some cases, extend beyond the function of work to include ownership, or become a means of guaranteeing a right. Although, according to the classification of contracts based on their functional purpose, an agency contract is considered a work contract and is generally considered non-binding, allowing for the dismissal of the agent or the principal unilaterally, there are instances where an agency contract becomes binding. This occurs when it is concluded for the benefit of the principal, the agent, or even a third party. Therefore, exercising the right of dismissal in these cases is contingent upon obtaining the consent of the party in whose favor the contract was concluded.

This article examines the issue of civil liability insurance for pharmaceutical companies, as a legal and financial means of protecting these companies from legal claims resulting from harm to consumers resulting from the use of their pharmaceutical products. The article provides a critical perspective on the adequacy of insurance as a means of protecting both companies and consumers. It also raises questions about the need to develop legislation to keep pace with scientific and medical developments, especially in light of the emergence of new drugs with complex technologies.

This research examines the vital role played by provisional measures issued by the International Court of Justice in the context of implementing the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. The study reviews the legal framework for these measures, the conditions for their issuance, and their effectiveness in protecting fundamental rights and preventing the escalation of conflict situations. It also highlights a number of international cases in which provisional measures have served as an important preventive tool, analyzing the extent of the states concerned's compliance with them and their impact on the course of international litigation. The research concludes that provisional measures represent a necessary judicial mechanism for enhancing international protection, but they remain subject to the political will of states and their respect for the Court's rulings.

Abstract In this article, the researcher decided to divide his study in a manner that clarifies the nature of the Khor Abdullah Agreement and its associated effects, then addresses its legal and political implications, highlighting the challenges posed by this maritime regulation to Iraq's sovereign rights. Accordingly, this review seeks to present the structure and content of the research, and to outline the most prominent observations that can be raised regarding the researcher's opinions and conclusions.