iklil for Humanity Studies

The Assyrians were one of the peoples of the Arabian Peninsula who migrated to Iraq at the beginning of the second millennium BC. They settled in the northern region and controlled all of Iraqi territory, enjoying its resources thanks to its strategic geographical location, They established the largest ancient Iraqi empire, stretching from Elam in the east to Egypt in the west, and from Anatolia in the north to the Arabian Gulf in the south. The Assyrian kings marched their armies into western regions to acquire essential building materials such as timber, metals, textiles, and other resources, as well as to control important trade routes and centers in the Levant. They conquered Syrian cities and kingdoms, as well as Phoenician cities along the Mediterranean coast, demanding tribute and submission from their rulers. Their military efforts even extended to conquering Egypt. Their reign was not without internal strife and conspiracies. Events witnessed plots within the royal court that claimed the lives of great kings such as Shalmaneser III and Sennacherib. Furthermore, the power struggle between the brothers Ashurbanipal and Shamshi-sham-ukin, sons of King Esarhaddon, was a major issue. Military campaigns were also marked by numerous setbacks, including the death of King Esarhaddon before he could begin his third campaign against Egypt. The kings faced these challenges with patience, perseverance, and self-confidence. Thanks to the wisdom, patience, and steadfastness of their kings, the Assyrians ruled over vast areas of the ancient Near East.

Man has searched throughout the ages for different inventions that enable him to simulate the human mind, artists, writers, filmmakers and game developers have tried to find a logical explanation for the concept of artificial intelligence, there are those who talked about the role of machines that will play in the development of humanity and transfer the world to development and prosperity, and with the passage of time artificial intelligence was present only in science fiction, once highlighting the potential benefits of artificial intelligence on humanity, and once highlighting the negatives What is expected of him, because nothing in this life, no matter how useful, is devoid of, The research section into a preamble Then the first section includes the definition of artificial intelligence and the definition of tourism and the importance of tourism Elements of tourism Characteristics of the tourism sector The second section includes archaeological tourism The importance of archaeological tourism Archaeological tourism and e-tourism The importance of e-tourism The third topic Characteristics of artificial intelligence The importance of artificial intelligence The most important applications of artificial intelligence in the field of tourism Positive effects of the use of artificial intelligence Negative effects of the use of artificial intelligence Challenges related to the use of intelligence techniques.

Islamic painting is considered one of the important branches of Islamic art in general and Islamic art in particular. It provides us with a valuable and highly significant glimpse into the social, economic, and cultural life during the Islamic eras in those vast lands of the Islamic East and West. Many of the pictorial scenes found in murals or Islamic manuscripts are a record of the Arab-Islamic environment and its daily life or historical events, in addition to depictions of the various crafts and arts practiced by artisans and Muslims at that time. Despite the flourishing of Islamic painting in diverse fields such as poetry collections, stories, and historical texts, it also appeared in scientific books on topics such as veterinary medicine, astrology, astronomy, mechanical devices, and medicinal herbs. These manuscripts were filled with small, brightly colored illustrations that attracted the attention of European scholars during the 20th century. This interest has been steadily increasing from generation to generation as a result of the annual exhibitions of Islamic art held in many European countries.
Mr. Ivan Chukin explicitly points to the importance of these international exhibitions in attracting the attention of European scholars. It is worth noting here that many references and publications in Arabic on Islamic painting aim to clarify this branch of Islamic arts and explain what Islamic painting is, its sources, and its development. This is despite the fact that some publications during successive Islamic eras focused on the most important artistic products, such as murals, manuscript illustrations, and the pictorial centers to which the artistic styles of the Islamic painting schools belong
Among these foreign studies, we mention the book by Mr. Kunl, published in Berlin in 1923 entitled "The Art of Painting in the East."
Arabia Islamic) and Arnold's book, "Painting in Islam," was published in Oxford. In this context, it is worth mentioning some
works published in Arabic on Islamic painting in a comprehensive study, including the book by the late Zaki Muhammad Hassan, "Painting in Islam among the Persians," published in Cairo in 1936, which deals with Islamic painting in Iran, and the book by Dr. Hassan Pasha, "Islamic Painting in the Middle Ages," published in Cairo in 1959, which deals with Islamic painting from the beginning of Islam until the end of the 9th century AH/15th century CE.
This topic is painting in Islamic art, its origins, and its various and diverse studies and development throughout the ages in the Islamic world. It focuses on Islamic painting, which is represented in Islamic art that decorates walls, i.e., depicts walls, as well as its production in miniatures or pictures that were drawn to decorate the pages of manuscripts and clarify texts

This study lifts the veil on three linguistic benefits—grammatical and morphological—contained in a handwritten compilation by Shaykh Sulaymān ibn ʿAbd Allāh al-Māḥūzī (d. 1121 AH). The Shaykh employed these insights in addressing certain juristic and uṣūlī issues, thereby offering a lucid illustration of how linguistic sciences were utilized and productively integrated into the scholarly practice of jurists and uṣūl scholars. In addition to editing and critically verifying these three benefits, the study presents a brief account of al-Māḥūzī’s biography, along with a concise descriptive exposition of them, supplemented by the customary components of scholarly critical edition.

Praise be to Allah, Lord of the Worlds, and peace and blessings be upon the one sent as a mercy to the worlds, and upon his pure and virtuous progeny.
This manuscript was authored by Hassan Fahmi Al-Alashahri (author of Al-Riyadh Al-Khaqaniyya), the Rumelian Sheikh al-Islam, who passed away in (1298 AH - 1881 AD). He was a prominent scholar who authored works across various disciplines, including grammar, rhetoric, jurisprudence, and others. This specific manuscript encompasses a collection of grammatical and rhetorical topics. Given the significance of the subjects addressed within it, we have sought to revive this work, enrich the Arabic library with its content, and present it in its finest form.
The research is divided into two main sections:
First: The Study Section, which includes:
A biography of the author.
His scholarly contributions and works.
His death.
An analytical study of the manuscript (attribution, importance, and physical description).
Second: The Critical Edition (Tahqiq): In this section, we have undertaken the verification and vocalization (Tashkil) of the manuscript, adhering to the established scholarly methodology of textual criticism and editing. The work concludes with a comprehensive list of primary and secondary sources utilized throughout the investigation.

This study examines the transformation of the supernaturally gifted musician from classical mythology, represented by Orpheus, to German tradition in the tale of the Pied Piper of Hamelin. It argues that the link between the two figures is not merely a coincidental similarity, but a cultural and intellectual transition that reflects how European memory in the Middle Ages reshaped older symbols within local traditions. The study begins with Orpheus as the classical model of a musician able to influence nature, enchant living beings, and cross the boundaries of the human world. It then turns to the Pied Piper in German literature and folklore, while also considering the tale’s historical roots in inscriptions, ecclesiastical records, and local writings that predate the version later shaped by the Brothers Grimm. A comparative analysis follows, identifying both parallels and differences between the two figures and showing how classical influences were transformed in the German context into a popular narrative. Thus, the research goes beyond a simple comparison of two myths. It explores the interaction between classical texts and popular memory in Europe, and how the image of Orpheus was recast in the German collective imagination as the wandering musician whose music holds extraordinary power. In doing so, it sheds light on the transmission and transformation of symbols between mythology and folklore in the making of European heritage.

This study aims to shed light on the Imami scholars of Baghdad and their impact on intellectual life during the Minor Occultation (260-329 AH), attempting to reinforce the concept of the Occultation and its acceptance as a reality with which coexistence is only possible through the institution of the Imam's emissaries or the class of scholars who managed the affairs of the Shi'a during the Minor Occultation. The study's significance lies in its highlighting of the scholarly, intellectual, religious, and literary contributions of the Imami scholars of that period, revealing their methodologies in writing and answering questions. The researcher's objective is to showcase the prominent figures and scholars of the Imami Shi'a in Baghdad.
This study was divided into several sections. The first section addressed the concept of the Minor Occultation, due to its close and deep connection to Islamic history. This idea was not born of its circumstances but was deeply rooted and established starting from the time of the Prophet (peace be upon him). Its indications were mentioned in the Holy Qur'an and the Noble Prophetic Sunnah. The second section focused on reviving intellectual life among the Shi'a and included several aspects, including attention to religious sciences and other sciences. The third section addressed confronting the conflicts and divisions within the Shi'a Imamite community. Claims emerged on the doctrinal scene from individuals, movements, and groups claiming affiliation with and representation of Imam Mahdi (peace be upon him), which caused many deviations in doctrine. Finally, the section was titled "Preserving the Scientific Heritage through the Authorship of Scientific Books," as the Minor Occultation period was a great scientific flourishing, during which scholars played an important role in preserving the religion, raising awareness among the Shi'a, and preparing them for subsequent stages. The aim of this is to preserve the scientific heritage through authorship and dissemination of knowledge.

This study aims to shed light on suicide cases in Baghdad during the seventh Hijri / thirteenth Gregorian century, based on the book Al-Hawadith al-Jami‘a wa al-Tajarib al-Nafi‘a attributed to Ibn al-Fuwati (d. 723 AH / 1323 AD). It identifies the main methods of suicide, which varied according to the situations and circumstances experienced by individuals who chose this path to end their lives. The study also examines the political and economic conditions that Baghdad went through during the seventh Hijri century, which contributed to driving some individuals toward suicide.

This research examines the various Sufi institutions in Abbasid-era Iraq, exploring their diverse forms and names, and the social and cultural roles they played. The purpose of these institutions transcended the purely religious goal of seclusion and devotion to worship. They evolved to encompass other objectives, moving away from the traditional Sufi approach of isolation and withdrawal from society towards integration and interaction with the people, guided by the ethical principles instilled in Sufis. Sufis began offering advice and guidance, holding preaching sessions, which garnered them popularity, affection, and respect. This led to a shift in public perceptions of Sufism, attracting more people to the faith.
Because Sufism addresses the spiritual and moral aspects of humanity, Sufis extended a helping hand to all those in need within their communities, regardless of their religion or sect. This increased the popularity of Sufism in their Arab and Islamic societies. Sufi institutions became a safe haven during times of war, natural disasters, and economic crises, serving as a lifeline for many who had strayed morally, guiding them back to the ethics advocated by Islam. These institutions also opened their doors to women, working to protect and safeguard them from moral corruption, and providing them with opportunities for education and self-improvement.
These institutions also played an intellectual and educational role, exemplified by the establishment of preaching councils that were not limited to Sufis but were attended by all members of society. These institutions served as a means of supporting, preserving, and upholding morality. They also became centers for housing students of religious knowledge who came to Baghdad to study under its scholars but whose financial circumstances did not allow them to stay in hotels or rent private accommodations. Furthermore, the libraries that the Sufis were keen to include in their Sufi institutions were another reason for attracting students and scholars to frequent and reside there.

This study examines the administrative system of al-Andalus during the Umayyad Caliphate (316–422 AH / 929–1031 CE), focusing on the structure and functions of its principal governing institutions, including the caliphate, vizierate, ḥijāba (chamberlainship), police administration, and naval organization. The research aims to analyze the nature of these institutions and assess their role in consolidating central authority and maintaining political stability.
The study concludes that the proclamation of the caliphate marked a significant transformation in state organization, strengthening centralization and redefining high administrative offices in accordance with the expanding political and military influence of the state. The ḥijāba, in particular, evolved into a powerful executive office, while the vizierate and police played crucial roles in governance and internal order. Naval organization emerged as a strategic response to external threats and maritime challenges.
The research demonstrates that institutional cohesion was a fundamental factor in the strength and longevity of the Umayyad state in al-Andalus, whereas its imbalance contributed to the decline of the caliphate in its final phase

addresses an important and controversial topic: the torture of Hadith scholars in Iraq during the Abbasid era. Our question is whether these scholars were tortured by the ruling authority because they were a close ally and because of their social standing, which stemmed from their religious scholarship and their focus on studying the Hadith and biography of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him and his family). They thus gained a kind of veneration and blessings from the Abbasid caliphs and the Muslim community. Hence, this study examines the Abbasid authorities' torture of Hadith scholars in Iraq (132- 300AH/749-912 AD) (a historical study). The first section explores the concept of torture, its historical roots, and its legitimacy in Islam. The second section addresses the reasons and methods used by the Abbasid authorities to torture Hadith scholars. The third section summarizes the consequences of this torture. Finally, the study presents the most important findings and a list of the key sources and references used in writing this historical research.

It is perhaps unnecessary to mention the setbacks and bleak outlook that befell society after the death of the Great Messenger, given that he was not only the Seal of the Prophets but also a leader, father, and shepherd of his nation. With the increasing blindness of insight among Muslims and the loss of will during the rule of Ali, we find that these turning points did not deter Al-Ahnaf bin Qais from creating a renaissance through awareness-raising stances that would have a great impact on creating awareness among Muslims, investing his social position, in addition to what Al-Ahnaf was known for in terms of patience, leadership, and contemplation in many situations that we will go through as we review Al-Ahnaf bin Qais’s role in opposing the people of innovation and the user of invented opinion.

Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf spent the 20 years of his life as governor of Iraq and the Levant (Rajab 75 AH to Shawal 95 AH / 694-714 CE) and spent the first half of this period almost in quelling the rebellion and revolution movements to which he directed all his energies and accounted for all his efforts. A rebellion against the pilgrims had reasons and motives.However, it is noticed that these movements and revolutions were brought together by a major common factor which is the hatred of the people of Iraq for the Umayyad rule and the elements on which it depended.This represented a regional conflict between Iraq and the Levant over influence, power and material interests. , As well as other reasons the research summary can't mention. In this political atmosphere full of hatred and resentment, Iraq has witnessed many adventurers who exploited these factors and carried out several rebellions and revolt not only against the workers of the Umayyad and their loyalties, but against the Umayyad presence at its foundation, as did Mukhtar bin Abi Obaid al-Thaqafi, Mutraf ibn al-Mughayrah ibn Shu'bah, and Abd al-Rahman. Bin Mohammed bin shagha Canadian and others. Against the extremism of the opposition movements and their development as before, the Umayyads took the path of firmness and power to subjugate them. The first serious insurgency that pilgrims have faced since his arrival in Iraq. The research attempted to explain the causes and details of the revolution, with the most important result

Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn ibn Shanzeer (d.402e) He was one of the prominent figures who contributed to enriching the intellectual movement in Andalusia during the fourth century AH. He combined narration and knowledge, excelling in the sciences of Hadith, jurisprudence, and history. Furthermore, his lineage from the Umayyad dynasty bestowed upon him a distinguished social and scholarly standing. He grew up in Toledo in a vibrant scholarly environment, rich with scholarly gatherings and circles. He received his initial education from its scholars, then continued his studies, traveling between the major cities of Andalusia, most notably Cordoba, before journeying to the Islamic East. There, he studied under scholars in Egypt and the Hijaz, benefiting from their narrations and chains of transmission. He was known for his extensive knowledge of Hadith, his mastery of the methods of narration and performance, and his meticulousness in recording and transmitting, to the point that he became one of the most trusted authorities in this field. He was also characterized by piety, asceticism, and adherence to the Prophetic Sunnah. He was renowned for his firm stance against those who followed deviant sects and innovations. During his scholarly journey, he forged a close friendship with Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Maymun. They were companions in seeking knowledge and listening to scholars, united by a common goal and a shared passion for learning and understanding. His scholarly career unfolded during one of the most flourishing periods of the Umayyad state in Andalusia, particularly during the reign of Caliph al-Hakam al-Mustansir Billah, which witnessed a widespread intellectual and cultural boom. This flourishing was reflected in the activity of scholars and the increased production of books, manuscripts, and scholarly travels, all of which contributed to refining Ibn Shanzir's scholarly character and broadening his intellectual horizons. While most of his works have been lost to time, later sources have preserved a portion of his scholarly legacy. They have included excerpts from his book on the biographies of Andalusian figures, as well as references to his legal abridgments and other scholarly contributions, in addition to the scholarly program he shared with Ibn Maymun. Biographical and biographical works have also preserved examples of his writings. His handwriting indicates his established position among scholars, and reveals the extent of the trust he enjoyed among scholars and narrators.

Generations have relied on the written word to learn about news, especially historical news. Oral transmission was a traditional method of preserving events, and this transmission depended on values, ethics, and honesty, as well as collective memory.
The Arabs were renowned for their remarkable memory, and this knowledge was passed down through generations from narrator to narrator. The transmission of events then evolved from oral tradition to written documentation, as reliance on spoken word diminished. This marked the beginning of the process of collecting, recording, analyzing, and verifying historical events.

The research study entitled "Writing Materials in Ancient Mesopotamia and Yemen: A Comparative Study, with Clay as a Model" is a valuable study. It is through this medium that an ancient civilization, spanning many eras, has reached us, chronicling human life at that time. Clay was a source of writing in Mesopotamia and pre-Islamic Arabia. The ancient Iraqis relied heavily on it to record their artifacts and economic transactions, especially the imports of metals in ancient times. Cuneiform script was used, although writing began in the era of the ancient Sumerian civilization. A comparison reveals that Mesopotamia relied on soft clay for writing, found in the alluvial plain, while pre-Islamic Arabia used ink and engraving on wood, metal, and stone This is because the stone is harder and heavier, so the Arabs relied on it before Islam. We note that the triangular or pointed flag was used by the ancient Iraqis. As for the Arabs before Islam, they used chisels, charcoal, brushes, and other tools. The inscriptions were engraved, not painted. The forms of writing among the people of Mesopotamia were square, rectangular, disc, cylinder, spherical, triangular, and cone shapes. Each of these shapes had a special importance. The forms of writing among the Arabs before Islam were the huge inscriptions that they study, the official course, or the writing on the walls, which consisted of scratches on the surface of the rocks.

This study provides a critical analysis of the views of the German orientalist Franz Taeschner regarding the Islamic conquests and the Crusades. It reveals a number of methodological errors and inconsistencies. The study demonstrates that Taeschner was not impartial, as he presented an unbalanced interpretation of the concepts of jihad and conquest, portraying the Islamic conquests as instruments of violence and coercion, and as a form of political expansion detached from their missionary dimension. This portrayal contradicts both the tolerance inherent in Islamic law and the established historical realities. The study further clarifies that the Crusades were not purely religious in nature, and that interpreting historical events requires avoiding generalization, reductionism, and projection, all of which lead to a distortion of historical truth.

The book "The Prophet's Wives and Children" by Al-Dimyati is a specialized work on the Prophet's biography, focusing on the personal life of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), the biographies of his wives and children, and mentioning his predecessors among his wives. Al-Dimyati uniquely emphasizes this aspect of the Prophet's life (peace and blessings be upon him) and his relationships with his predecessors (peace and blessings be upon him), specifically those who married the sisters of the Prophet's wives (peace and blessings be upon him).
This research includes an introduction to the book "The Prophet's Wives," its divisions and topics, the author's method of arranging and dividing the subject matter, a study of Al-Dimyati's methodology in the book, his approach to historical narratives and their analysis, as well as the most important sources that Al-Dimyati relied upon in his book.

This research traces the importance of expansion and the methods employed by the Almohads in spreading their message, establishing their control, and ruling the Maghreb for nearly a century and a half. Their expansion was achieved through various means, including Ibn Tumart's ideological policies, persuasive methods, and preaching councils. Internal rebellions also played a role in the establishment of their state, and the caliphs' attention to these rebellions was crucial. The decline of their power, however, was multifaceted, stemming from internal factors such as mismanagement of state resources, internal conflicts manifested as revolutions and rebellions, the weakness of the caliphs due to their neglect of state affairs and indulgence in pleasures and entertainment, the erosion of military power, and the infiltration of foreign elements hostile to Islam. These factors ultimately led to the end of the Almohad state and the rise of smaller states in the Maghreb.

This study explores the historical evolution of Islamic civilization from the inception of Islam, and specifically, the crucial role of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib (peace be upon him) in laying down the foundations of Islamic civilization and shaping its intellectual, political and social trends. His role was not confined to the military and political aspect, but also his intellectual, legislative and ethical contributions that constituted a fundamental part in the development of Islamic civilization through different historical stages.
Imam Ali played a crucial role in establishing the principles of justice and equity, and the promotion of human and moral values upon which the foundation of the Islamic society was formed. He also had a significant role in leading the intellectual and scientific generations throughout the early Islamic era.
This research follows a descriptive-analytical methodology to map out the phases of Islamic civilizational advancement, in the light of primary historical sources, and their correlation with modern critical studies, to shed light on the scope and nature of Imam Ali's contributions to various fields of Islamic civilization.
The results reveal his contributions are multifaceted, ranging from jurisprudential and legislative aspects to intellectual and philosophical thinking, political and administrative systems, and literary, linguistic, ethical and social aspects. These contributions clearly influenced the establishment of the Islamic state and the building of its civilizational foundations.
These contributions, despite their importance, have been the subject of academic and political controversy because of the biases of the historical sources, due to political and sectarian inclinations. Therefore, there is a need for an objective and critical academic approach to comprehensively re-evaluate the role played by Imam Ali in its right historical context. This would help to provide a more comprehensive and objective insight into his civilizational contributions, emphasising his role in shaping Islamic thought, administration and the value system that helped to shape the prosperity of Islamic civilization and its impact throughout the following Islamic epochs until the present time.

The great Sultans were keen on implementing the principle of Shura (consultation), as they realized or were advised on its important role in establishing this principle and benefiting the state's interest during their era. They actually proceeded to promote the political reality, sometimes to serve the Sultan's interests and other times to serve the public interest. They adopted the principle of Shura before establishing it and after its establishment, despite the Seljuk rule being somewhat hereditary and militaristic.
Implementing Shura led to the appointment of suitable men in important positions in the state, among the most important of which was the position of Wazir (Minister). Documenting historical events confirms that more than one Wazir benefited from the counsel and opinion of the Wuzara' (Ministers), especially the Wazir responsible for managing the affairs of the state and managing all its facilities alongside the Sultan, as he would submit advice to the Sultan. Thus, the Wazir became the Sultan's personal consultant and devoted friend.
The research aims to shed light on the extent to which the great Seljuk Sultans applied the principle of Shura, in addition to understanding the topics addressed by Shura according to the requirements of the stage, such as the appointment of Wuzara', the loyalty and allegiance to the Sultan, resisting and suppressing rebel movements, and military consultations that were taken during the confrontation of external danger, conquests, and solving internal problems and difficulties faced by the state. They were also consulting on general affairs, such as the construction of cities, schools, and others. Their goal of Shura was to achieve the right decision by discussing various opinions and benefiting from the accumulation of experiences, which reduces the possibility of error in decision-making. The research was divided into several related sections: Shura and its concept in Islam, and the application of the principle of Shura in the Islamic civilization eras. It also addressed the research on Shura among the great Seljuk Sultans and concluded with a summary of the findings.

This study examines the image of the Mongols and their invasion of the Islamic world as presented in Tārīkh-i Jahānkushā by ʿAṭā Malik al-Juwaynī, one of the most important contemporary sources on the Mongol conquests. The significance of this work lies in the fact that al-Juwaynī was closely associated with the Mongol administration, which provided him with direct access to political and military events, but at the same time raises questions about the objectivity of his narrative.
The research analyzes al-Juwaynī’s depiction of the Mongols, focusing on their military organization, political structure, and methods of expansion, as well as their impact on major Islamic cities such as Bukhara, Samarkand, Merv, Nishapur, and Baghdad. It also examines the nature of the Mongol invasion, highlighting both its destructive consequences—such as mass killings, urban devastation, and the collapse of major political entities—and its administrative outcomes, including the establishment of new systems of governance.
Furthermore, the study provides a comparative analysis between al-Juwaynī and other historians, particularly Ibn al-Athīr and Ibn Kathīr, in order to identify differences in perspective, narrative style, and historical interpretation. While al-Juwaynī tends to present a more structured and at times less condemnatory account, Ibn al-Athīr emphasizes the catastrophic and unprecedented nature of the invasion, and Ibn Kathīr offers a later, more interpretive perspective that connects the events to internal weaknesses within the Islamic world.
The study concludes that although Tārīkh-i Jahānkushā is a fundamental source for understanding the Mongol expansion, it must be approached critically and in comparison with other sources to achieve a more balanced and accurate historical understanding.
For the purposes of historical research, it was necessary to divide the study into several themes and sections. The first section is entitled: “ʿAṭā Malik al-Juwaynī: His Life, Upbringing, and Methodology in Writing Mongol History.” The second section examines “The Image of the Mongols in al-Juwaynī’s Work.” The third section is devoted to “The Mongol Invasion of the Islamic World through Tārīkh-i Jahānkushā.” The fourth section discusses “The Effects and Consequences of the Mongol Invasion as Presented in Tārīkh-i Jahānkushā.” Finally, the fifth section concludes with a “Critical Study of Tārīkh-i Jahānkushā.”

This study examines the Talibid Ashraf in Iraq during the Buyid period shedding light on the concept of the Talibid Ashraf and their historical roots and clarifying their religious and social status within Iraqi society at that time, as well as the nature of their relationship with Buyid authority.The first section is devoted to presenting the general framework of the Talibid Ashraf with a focus on their historical roots origins emergence and their role in public life The second section concentrates on the biography of Sharif alRadi addressing his life and upbringing, his most prominent political and social roles in addition to his relationship with Buyid authority and the Abbasid Caliphate, while also outlining the positions he held and the tasks and responsibilities he undertook in managing the affairs of society.The third section is dedicated to the study of the personality of Sharif alMurtada by highlighting his scholarly and social standing his political and intellectual role the offices he occupied and the works he carried out in the service of the state and society particularly his efforts in resolving disputes and bringing viewpoints closer among different parties which contributed to consolidating social stability during that period.In its conclusion the study arrives at a set of findings that affirm the importance of the role played by the Talibid Ashraf in Iraq during Buyid rule and their impact on political, social, and intellectual life in a manner consistent with the objectives the research sought to achieve

The paper explores the impact made by Mamluks, the migrants from Transoxiana, to diminish loyalty of the population to the Abbasid Caliph. This paper seeks to investigate this issue using an analytical approach to the study of the Afshin revolt, which took place during the time of caliph Al-Mu'tasim's rule (218-227 AH/833-842 AD). In particular, this paper seeks to identify the structural changes caused by the appearance of Turkish military units in the context of political system of Abbasids. This research utilizes a historical-analytical approach to examine the problem with help of both primary sources and current literature. The conclusion is reached that Al-Mu'tasim's policy in respect to Mamluks was a profound revolution causing redistribution of power in favor of Mamluk commanders and diminishing the role of Caliph himself. The Afshin revolt also demonstrated the vulnerability of the principle of political loyalty as transformed into religious subordination into political influence. From this study, it can be concluded that this time marked the start of the slow erosion of the prestige of the Caliphate in practice, even if not symbolically, which led to the later changes in the system of Abbasid power.

The process of infiltration of the Turks into the court of the Abbasid caliphate began gradually since the third Hijri/ninth century AD, and it was not so much a sudden event as it was the result of deep military and political transformations within the Abbasid state. The Abbasid caliphs, especially during the reign of Al-Mu'tasim Allah, faced increasing challenges represented by the weak loyalty of the Arab and Persian soldiers, and the many internal conflicts, which prompted them to look for a new military force more disciplined and linked to the Caliph's person. In this context, Turkish elements were brought from the regions of Central Asia, where they were known for their high combat skills, especially in equestrian and throwing. They were initially introduced into the Mamluk military system, bringing young people and raising a special military upbringing inside the court, which strengthened their direct loyalty to the Caliph. This trend culminated when Al-Mu'tasim founded the city of Samarra as a new headquarters for the Turkish soldiers, away from the tensions of Baghdad and its inhabitants. Over time, the Turkish role has shifted from just a military force to an active element in political life. The Turkish military commanders became very influential within the court, and began to interfere in the appointment and dismissal of Caliphs, as happened in later periods of the Abbasid era. This led to what is known in historical studies as the "Jund control" phase, in which the Caliph's actual authority declined in favor of military commanders. It can be said that the entry of the Turks into the court of the Abbasid Caliphate was a practical response to a military crisis, but later contributed to the restructuring of the power structure within the state, and paved the way for the emergence of a new style of government based on military influence, which was clearly reflected in the course of the political history of the caliphate in subsequent centuries.

This research aims to shed light on the nature of the conflict between the Mu'tazilites and the Hanbalites in Samarra and its political impact on the Abbasid Caliphate. Samarra was founded by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah in 221 AH (836 CE) for security reasons, as he sought to establish a safe haven and residence for himself and his Turkish soldiers after the deteriorating security situation in Baghdad. He also desired a new capital bearing his name, a legacy for his descendants. The issue also lies in the emergence of the Mu'tazilites as one of the religious groups that sought to interpret Islamic doctrine through reason and logic. They differed from other groups, including the Ahl al-Hadith (People of Hadith) and the Ahl al-Sunnah (Sunni Muslims), particularly regarding their five fundamental principles: monotheism, divine justice, divine promise and threat, the Mu'tazilite position between the two realms, and enjoining good and forbidding evil. At the head of the group was Judge Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad, who influenced Caliph al-Mu'tasim with the idea of the "createdness of the Qur'an," a concept that had begun during the reign of al-Ma'mun (d. 218 AH, 842 CE). The issue intensified during the reign of al-Mu'tasim (227 AH/842 CE). However, the Hanbalis, representing the school of Ahl al-Hadith (People of Hadith) and Sunnah, rejected excessive rational interpretation, adhering to the established doctrine based on the texts of the Qur'an and Hadith. They then engaged in independent reasoning (ijtihad) and considered the application of reason, asserting that the createdness of the Qur'an is an essential attribute of God, eternally pre-existent.
It is noted that during this period the hadith scholars faced the most severe forms of persecution and imprisonment. The ordeal began to diminish during the reign of Al-Wathiq (232 AH / 874 AD) when he released Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal and allowed him to remain in his house without going out and issuing fatwas. The affection ended during the reign of Caliph Al-Mutawakkil (274 AH / 861 AD), who prohibited holding debates and arguments in councils and the saying about the creation of the Qur’an in all regions. This led to a decline in the influence of the Mu’tazilites in the Abbasid state after they had political influence over the caliphs with a religious facade. This constituted a turning point towards stability for the people of hadith and Sunnah, bringing them back to the forefront and consolidating their approach. Consequently, the close relationship between doctrine and power was revealed.

In our research entitled "The Historical Roles of the Prophet's Companions (peace and blessings be upon him): Dimad ibn Tha'labah al-Azdi (may God be pleased with him) as a Model," we examined the roles played by the Prophet's Companions (peace and blessings be upon him) before, during, and after the advent of Islam, across all spheres. The esteemed Companion Dimad ibn Tha'labah al-Azdi (may God be pleased with him) served as a model for studying his noble life and his distinguished social and scholarly standing.
It was essential to highlight figures who had the honor of embracing Islam and accompanying the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), but whom history has overlooked or historians have failed to illuminate. Our aim was to clarify the features of his historical role and also to address the issue of his origins, specifically whether he was Yemeni or Omani.

The caliphs consistently disseminated their knowledge across various arts and sciences, and this diverse body of knowledge spread from the easternmost to the westernmost reaches of their lands. Perhaps what further enhanced the flourishing and dynamism of the writing process was the phenomenon of commissioning, that is, when a ruler would commission a scholar to write or compile a work in a particular field of knowledge. In most cases, this involved commissioning a renowned scholar in a specific field to write a book addressing a particular issue, responding to a specific book, or refuting a particular idea. or perhaps the writing serves to promote a specific idea, or to refute opinions and ideas that may arise from time to time; or perhaps the caliphs’ commissioning of jurists was intended to preserve their poetry and genealogies. Whatever the case may be, the movement of authorship contributed to the development of scientific production and propelled it toward progress, while preserving the Arab-Islamic heritage from decay and loss.

The Kingdom of Hatra is considered one of the most prominent Arab kingdoms that flourished in northern Mesopotamia during the first and second centuries AD. It played a significant commercial role due to its strategic geographical location, which placed it at the crossroads of major trade routes connecting the Parthian Empire in the East with the Roman Empire in the West. As a result, Hatra became an important inland commercial center where various trade routes converged, bringing goods from Persia and India toward the Levant and the Roman ports on the Mediterranean Sea.
This position contributed to strengthening economic stability in the region and transformed the city into a major center for the trade of luxury commodities such as perfumes, spices, silk, and other valuable goods. The prosperity of the kingdom was largely based on the caravan economy, as Hatra succeeded in establishing itself as a secure and reliable station for regional trade caravans crossing long distances.
Its role was not limited to being merely a transit point for goods; rather, it functioned as an integrated logistical center where commercial exchange was organized and supported by services including caravan protection, supply provisions, and storage facilities. Through these measures, the kingdom maintained a balance between the external pressures of surrounding empires, becoming a vital center of overland trade in the region.
Archaeological inscriptions and historical sources also reflect the importance of the kingdom as an active commercial center with considerable economic power, granting it a significant position within the regional network of ancient kingdoms. Consequently, Hatra became one of the most important and prosperous economic centers in the history of the ancient Near East.

This research explores the symbolic dimension of architectural decorations in Samarra, the second capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, highlighting the artistic transformations in Islamic ornamentation during the 9th century AD (3rd century AH). The central problem of the study lies in moving beyond traditional descriptive analysis toward an interpretation of the philosophical and political significances embedded within geometric and floral patterns. Utilizing a historical-analytical methodology, the study is structured into three sections: the first examines the historical and technical framework of Samarra’s emergence and the role of stucco in shaping its identity; the second focuses on the artistic analysis of decorative elements (floral, geometric, and calligraphic); and the third concludes with the symbolic dimensions rooted in the philosophy of abstraction and its relationship to concepts of Monotheism (Tawhid) and Power.
The study finds that Samarra’s decorations, particularly the Third Style (Beveled Style), represent the first abstract revolution in Islamic art, where decorative units shifted from mimicking nature to visual symbols reflecting infinity and the absolute. Furthermore, the research demonstrates that ornamentation in Samarra served as a tool to consolidate the prestige and centrality of the Abbasid Caliphate, establishing the city as an artistic school that influenced Islamic architectural styles for centuries to come.

This study aims to examine the position of Al-Yaqatha Al-Baghdadiya newspaper regarding the coup of Colonel Sami Al-Hinnawi in Syria in 1949, and to analyze the impact of this event on Iraqi journalistic discourse during the monarchical era. The research is based on a central question concerning the nature of this position—whether it reflected neutrality or support—as well as how the coup influenced the methods of journalistic treatment of political issues.
The study adopts a historical-analytical approach by tracing the newspaper’s coverage of the coup and analyzing its content based on issues published during August 1949. It also relies on integrating these journalistic materials with relevant historical and intellectual sources in order to provide a deeper understanding of the nature of journalistic discourse in that period.
The findings indicate that Al-Yaqatha Al-Baghdadiya adopted a discourse that tended toward indirect justification of the coup, through emphasizing the failures of the previous regime and highlighting the positive aspects of the event. The newspaper also relied heavily on official sources, such as military statements and news agencies. Furthermore, the study reveals variation among Iraqi newspapers, as some adopted a more neutral tone, while Al-Yaqatha was more engaged in interpreting the event.
The study also demonstrates that Al-Hinnawi’s coup contributed to the development of Iraqi journalistic discourse by enhancing its analytical nature, increasing its focus on regional issues, and introducing new political concepts into journalistic language, such as legitimacy, stability, and the role of the military in governance. However, this development remained constrained by political and media limitations that restricted press independence.
The study concludes that Al-Yaqatha Al-Baghdadiya was not merely a transmitter of events, but an influential actor in shaping public opinion. Therefore, examining its position toward this coup provides an important entry point for understanding the relationship between media and political transformations in Iraq during the monarchical .

This study examines American policy toward Jerusalem in light of U.S. support for Israel since 1948. It analyzes the development of the American position from Israel’s control over West Jerusalem after the 1948 war, through the occupation of East Jerusalem in 1967, to the U.S. recognition of Jerusalem as Israel’s capital in 2017 and the relocation of the American embassy in 2018. The study argues that U.S. policy was not neutral, but gradually shifted from diplomatic ambiguity to explicit political support for the Israeli position. It also shows that this policy weakened the prospects of a just settlement, while failing to alter the international legal status of Jerusalem or eliminate Palestinian rights in the city.

This research highlights the most prominent political events that Burma witnessed during the period 1962-1974, especially after General Ne Win seized power following the 1962 coup, which led to the formation of the Revolutionary Council government that implemented a purely military dictatorship, as it subjected all aspects of life in the country to its hegemony in an attempt to distance Burma from foreign influences that it saw as a threat to the culture of the Burmese people. In the seventies of the twentieth century, the Revolutionary Council government loosened its grip on power in the country after it replaced its military rule with a civilian government that responded to the requirements of the stage that the country was going through in 1974.

This study aims to examine the life of the Lebanese military and political leader Shawkat Shukair within an objective historical framework. This figure was chosen because of his influential role, not only in Lebanon, but also in Syria, where he joined the Syrian army in 1949 and progressed through the military ranks until he assumed the position of Chief of Staff of the Syrian army, using his military position to manage the country’s internal affairs .
Undoubtedly, studying historical figures requires researchers to adopt a historical methodology based on objectivity and accuracy, while exercising caution in presenting events and their details. From this perspective, this research, entitled "Shawkat Shuqair: His Life and Military and Political Role in Lebanon and Syria 1912–1956," represents a serious attempt to contribute to the body of historical studies on these figures, striving as much as possible to avoid bias or exaggeration in portraying the individual under study .

The Taif Agreement, reached in 1989, constituted a significant turning point in the history of modern Lebanon, as it was a document that officially ended the fifteen-year Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), It laid the foundations for a new phase known as the Second Lebanese Republic, as the National Reconciliation Document, which inaugurated a serious new path, was a reality in the prevailing climate of anxieties and confusion regarding priorities. Therefore, it was one of the most important attempts at reconciliation and consensus in a confrontational society. Therefore, it was one of the most important attempts at reconciliation and consensus in a confrontational society. It was a settlement between the conflicting Lebanese parties, represented in what was agreed upon in terms of political reforms and mechanisms to end the fighting, and to resolve matters that had to be resolved. It emphasized the unity of the land, the people, and the institutions, and rejected division and fragmentation. It emphasized the finality of the Lebanese homeland and its Arab affiliation, and made the Charter of Coexistence a fundamental pillar of the legitimacy of the authority.

Between 1993 and 1996, the Middle East witnessed a series of repeated Israeli attacks on Lebanon, most notably Operation Accountability in 1993 and Operation Grapes of Wrath in 1996. These attacks constituted a significant turning point in the history of the Arab-Israeli conflict, given their political and humanitarian repercussions that impacted the regional and international balance of power.
In this context, the positions of influential countries in the region emerged, particularly those of France and Egypt, key players in the European and Arab arenas. The French position was rooted in a history of political and cultural ties with Lebanon, while the Egyptian stance reflected a balance between Arab identity and international diplomatic considerations.
This research aims to analyze the French and Egyptian positions on the Israeli attacks on Lebanon during the period 1993–1996, by tracing their official stances and political discourse, and analyzing the factors that influenced the formulation of these positions, both internal and external. It also seeks to highlight the similarities and differences between French and Egyptian policies toward these events, and the extent of their impact on the course of the Lebanese-Israeli crisis.

The contemporary history of Iraq revolved around Britain's attempts to unify its three provinces (Basra, Mosul, and Baghdad) into a single administrative and political unit. Before it was established in 1921 AD, it was a territory belonging to the Ottoman Empire consisting of three states, each of which had special geographical, ethnic, and religious characteristics. The area of desert areas greatly exceeded the area of cultivated areas, and the authority of the tribe was stronger than that of the state. The great potential offered by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers was neglected for a long time. After the end of World War II (1939-1945), the British administration wanted to maintain its influence in Iraq by extending its economic influence in the country under the pretext of its economic backwardness and the declining standard of living of the population. At that time, it used its pervasive influence in the Iraqi government, which was represented by its Iraqi politicians. Through these projects, it was able to consolidate its political position again, especially after it helped Iraq join the United Nations and the Arab League.

The study aims to explore the history and analysis of Saudi _ Chinese relations from their historical beginning , up to the 1980s and up to the 21st century (2004). It also aims to explore the political , economic and cultural relations between the two countries as well as the nature of the relationship and the extent to which changes in the international and relationship order have impacted their relationsjip. The unique geographical and historical location of both China and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has had a cultural and economic impact , which in turn has led to a series of interactions that have resulted in a prominent historical relationship manifested in trade and commercial routes linking the two countries , making them appoint of connection between the East and the West . throughout its history China s economic factor has been fundamental , upon which Chinese policy has been characterized by flexibility and global openness in order to achieve its goals. In contrast, the Arabian Gulf region in general and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in particular are among the most important regions in China s foreign policy. Due to its geostrategic position and its economic resources , China has come to rely on it to a great extent. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia s orientation towards China and its promising and rising renaissance towards rapid development and growth has obliged it to benefit from it in all aspects , whether on the political , economic or cultural level.

Since the 16th century, the Arabian Gulf has witnessed increasing interest from European colonial powers due to its important strategic location as a link between the continents of the Old World and its position on the most important trade routes leading to India and Southeast Asia. Therefore, these countries began to aspire and strive to gain a foothold in the Arabian Gulf region. Portugal was among the first European countries to plan for dominance over the Arabian Gulf. Its colonial activity began in 1507 when it sent a naval expedition led by Afonso de Albuquerque, which succeeded in occupying Hormuz Island, a vital trading center in the region. This expedition was driven by several motives, most importantly controlling maritime trade, eliminating Ottoman dominance, spreading Christianity, and securing trade routes to India. Portuguese control continued until 1623, after which a competing European power entered the Gulf, the Dutch, which began its naval activity in 1623. The Dutch objectives in the Gulf were to completely control trade routes and eliminate other colonial powers, such as the Portuguese. They established trade relations with local powers, strengthened the Dutch East India Company's presence in the region, and their activity continued until 1766. Before their presence ended, a new European expansionist power, France, entered the Gulf. Its activity began in 1664, and it was no different from its predecessors in its expansionist goals: the desire to control this region as a link between its colonies in Africa and Asia, to compete with other European powers for control of the Middle East, and to dominate maritime trade in the Gulf markets. Its presence continued until 1862. Although each colonial power used its own methods to control the Gulf, this did not eliminate the two main obstacles to expansion. The first was the colonial competition itself for larger territories, and the second was the emergence of local powers that rejected the European presence on their lands. Thus, we can say that the European powers' expansionist goals were not easy; rather, they were fraught with difficulties. This led
to its weakening, then its demise, and its departure from the Arabian Gulf region

Myanmar witnessed, during the period (2008–2021), a complex pattern of interaction between the military institution and the trajectory of political transformation, characterized by a duality combining manifestations of political openness with the persistence of military dominance. The 2008 Constitution established a hybrid political structure that entrenched the army’s role as a dominant actor within the system by granting it broad constitutional powers, including control over key security sectors and significant influence within the legislative branch, thereby constraining the ability of civilian forces to achieve genuine democratic transformation.
During the period (2011–2020), a quasi-civilian governing model emerged, operating within institutional constraints defined by the military establishment. This produced a fragile balance among political actors and maintained the transformation process within a formal framework that did not affect the core distribution of power. This structure also contributed to weakening civilian institutions and undermining their independence, as the military retained decisive capacity to intervene when its strategic interests were threatened, whether through constitutional mechanisms or informal influence within various state institutions.
With escalating political tensions following the 2020 general elections, the limitations of constitutional arrangements in managing civil–military conflict became evident, culminating in the 2021 coup, which represented a logical extension of entrenched military dominance rather than a sudden shift in the political trajectory. These developments highlight the structural nature of Myanmar’s political crisis as a result of a persistent imbalance of power between civilian and military institutions, explaining the system’s susceptibility to reversal and limiting the prospects for a stable and sustainable democratic transition.

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

This research examines the evolution of Canadian foreign policy during the premiership of Pierre Elliott Trudeau (1968–1984), a period characterized by a radical shift from traditional Anglo-American dependency toward the "Third Option" strategy. The study explores the historical roots and diplomatic legacy inherited from Diefenbaker and Pearson, analyzing Trudeau's intellectual background and its impact on the concept of "Functional Sovereignty." The research further delves into Canada's management of its complex relationship with the United States, its diplomatic opening toward China, the Soviet Union, and the Francophonie, and its global peace initiatives. Ultimately, the study highlights Canada's emergence as a dynamic "Middle Power" capable of navigating the constraints of a bipolar world to secure its national interests and sovereignty.

This research aims to examine the phenomenon of private education in the Sanjak of Dulaim during the late Ottoman era (1303-1336 AH / 1885-1918 AD) as a community response to the state’s failure to provide educational services in peripheral regions. The research problem lies in interpreting the duality between the state's failure to universalize public education and the community's success in temporarily compensating for it, followed by a total collapse between 1914 and 1918.
Research Objectives:
1- Documenting the developmental stages of private education and defining the characteristics of each phase.
2- Analyzing the institutional structure of Kuttabs (traditional schools) and private schools in terms of staff, curricula, and funding.
3- Evaluating the impact of Ottoman Tanzimat policies and "Turkification" on enrollment rates.
4- Explaining the structural factors and crises that led to the system's collapse by 98.04%.
5- Demonstrating the social and political effects of private education in shaping the local elite.
The study adopts a quantitative historical-analytical approach based on "Documentary Triangulation." It cross-references primary Ottoman sources—specifically the Salname of Baghdad Vilayet (1305-1336 AH), Al-Zawra newspaper, and the endowment (Waqf) and municipal records of Ramadi—with contemporary British reports (Bell, 1920) and rigorous secondary studies (Al-Hilali, 1959; Longrigg, 1925; Somel, 2001). Oral traditions were excluded in compliance with the standards of the Iklil Journal.

The study deals with the campaign launched by Napoleon against Russia in 1812. The campaign was considered the event that led to the failure of Napoleon's plan to control the European continent. The study analyzes the reasons behind the campaign and the strategies followed by Napoleon, focusing on the policy followed by the Russians, which was the scorched earth policy, in addition to the climatic and geographical factors that clearly led to the weakening of the French army The research shows the military and political results of the campaign, especially the establishment of the Sixth European Alliance and the increase in European resistance against French influence. The study concludes that the failure of the French campaign against Russia was the beginning of the collapse of the Napoleonic Empire and the restructuring of powers in Europe.

A long series of political assassinations targeted important and prominent figures in Iraqi society. These figures had intellectual or political influence and paid with their lives for their ideas, positions, and personal convictions. The first and second republican eras (1958-1968) witnessed several assassinations that included influential figures in the country, such as Abdul Karim Qasim. This was followed by the period after 1968, which is considered one of the most dangerous periods in the history of modern and contemporary Iraq.

The research aimed to highlight the foreign policy of the United States of America, which devoted its efforts to eliminating communism in all European countries, especially Italy, where the United States of America focused its policy towards Italy on providing support to democratic governments with the aim of preventing the growth of communist parties there through aidMilitary and economic, strengthening Italy’s role in NATO, and activating cultural and media activities to promote Western values in order to confront communist influence in the country supported by Soviet Russia, as the American administration continued to support successive Italian governments and consolidate the foundations of their influence and orientations in a manner consistent with their interestsThe American administration, which sought to exclude the influence of the communist parties in European countries, especially Italy, due to its important geographical location and the penetration of communist influence there did not serve its interests on the political and economic levels. The American administration’s policy succeeded in winning over the Italian government, and the ideas that emerged in the form of programs were consistentPolitical and economic support contributed to the consolidation of anti-communist ideas and the installation of an Italian government loyal and supportive of the policies of the American administration, which sought to extend its influence and control over countries.

This paper targets to deconstruct the Western historical myth of Sultan Said bin Taimur (1932–1970) as one of full stagnation and isolation. Providing an analytical reading that is detached from the stereotypes surrounding them, the study challenges such stereotypes and shows how committed the Sultan was to establishing an administrative and financial apparatus for building a modern Omani state at a time which proved immensely complex locally and internationally as well.
This shift is studied in three critical stages: the early push for economic and institutional independence (1932-1952); the growing geopolitical entanglements associated with oil exploration and the Buraimi dispute (1952-1958), and finally, rising internal discontent alongside British consolidation of hegemony (1958-1970).
The findings show that this era was not a time of absolute political standstill but did and could have seen real attempts at modernizing state structures within the structures of administration, juristic and education. Intellectual isolationism was not the main cause of early reforms faltering, this study concludes; real lack of financing and foreign interventions more to be blamed. In essence, these initial initiatives were the cornerstones of Oman's Renaissance of 1970.

France and Lebanon are linked by friendly relations, as they have strong historical, cultural and political ties. France has played a mediating role in the Lebanese crises that the country has gone through throughout history. Despite the gradual decline of its political influence on the international scene and the rise of the American role in the Arab region, the French presence has returned to influence the Lebanese political situation again, especially in the recent events that Lebanon has gone through.

The personality of Mohammad Tadayyon was deeply influenced by the religious environment in which he was raised. Religious sciences formed the foundation of his early intellectual and educational development, as he studied jurisprudence, language, and traditional texts. However, the key problem he faced lay in balancing this traditional religious background with the demands of modernity, particularly amid the political and intellectual transformations taking place in Iran during the late Qajar period. This challenge motivated him to expand his knowledge beyond religious studies, pursuing modern sciences with the belief that true progress requires a synthesis of tradition and modernity.
His primary objective was to contribute to political and intellectual reform and to promote societal awareness of modernization. Consequently, he became actively involved in political life, opposing the rule of Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar and advocating for constitutional governance and stronger legislative institutions. His efforts led to his election as a member of the Iranian National Consultative Assembly during its fourth and fifth terms, where he participated in addressing critical national issues.
The outcomes of his activities were significant, as he played an important role in ending Qajar rule and helping pave the way for Reza Khan to ascend the throne in 1925. This highlights his clear impact on Iran’s political transformation and the establishment of a modern state.

During the era of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (2005–2013), Iran witnessed a period characterized by overlapping political, economic, and social transformations. Internally, the rise of the conservative movement was strengthened, and revolutionary discourse was reproduced, in contrast to the escalation of tensions following the 2009 elections and the emergence of the protest movement. Externally, his policy was characterized by escalation in the nuclear issue, resulting in the imposition of international sanctions that affected the national economy. Economically, he adopted a populist approach that focused on social justice, wealth distribution, and lifting subsidies. However, these policies were accompanied by rising inflation rates and increasing financial pressures, making his era a controversial period that left deep marks on the course of the Islamic Republic later on.

This study examines the impact of regional conflicts in the Arabian Gulf during (1980–1991) on the development of maritime security in the Sultanate of Oman. It focuses on the Tanker War and the Second Gulf War as key turning points that reshaped the regional maritime environment and influenced Oman’s national priorities.
Using a historical-analytical approach, the study compares maritime threats during both conflicts and analyzes their impact on Omani decision-making in managing the maritime domain at both diplomatic and institutional levels.
It argues that these crises did not create Oman’s maritime security from the outset, but rather acted as catalysts for reorganizing state priorities and strengthening maritime security as a core element of national stability.
The findings show that the internationalization of maritime security during the Second Gulf War contributed to the development of a long-term preventive approach in Oman, combining positive neutrality with institutional readiness, and linking maritime security to development and regional stability.