Ashur Journal for Legal and Political Studies

The Parti Communiste Francais (PCF) is one of the oldest and most prominent political parties in France, and has a long and influential history in political life. The party derived a large part of its strength and was influenced by the Soviet Union and its ideology. However, after the collapse of the latter, the party transformed from a major political force in France to a marginal party. The importance of the research lies in studying the ideological crisis of the party as it shifted from focusing on the traditional class struggle to adopting social issues. This transformation was not just a natural development, but rather a strategy for adaptation. And change. The research aims to shed light on the political and ideological transformations of the French Communist Party and identify the main trends that characterized the party after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, which changed the party’s course after it went through a period of great decline in its influence as a result of the changing global scene and keeping pace with changes and the extent of the party’s influence in the French political arena.

alternative means for resolving disputes in international commercial contracts, as it aims to bring the parties closer together with the assistance of a mediator who exercises due care and effort to reach an amicable solution.
Electronic mediation may be successful when the disputing parties accept the mediator’s recommendations, whether the agreement covers the entire subject of the dispute or only part of it. However, mediation procedures may also fail if the parties are unable to reach a satisfactory settlement—when the process reaches a dead end without achieving its intended purpose. Thus, the outcome of mediation is limited to either success, resulting in an agreement that resolves the dispute, or failure, which leads to legal and procedural consequences that vary depending on the result

This study focuses on incorporating informal workers and workers working on platforms into social insurance systems in the context of the rapid development of the digital economy. It unravels the conceptual framework and characteristics of informal work and analyzes the dynamics of platform work in terms of algorithmic access, pricing, and rating. The second part revisits fundamental principles at the heart of social insurance, such as compensation, solidarity and sustainability, as well as gaps of coverage caused by a movement towards narrow legal definitions and administrative tools that are failing to take account of an irregular income. The third section examines the policies implemented in France, Germany, Morocco and Egypt, featuring flexible definitions of workers, the creation of e-registration portals, and progressive linking of platforms to social insurance agencies. The paper concludes with recommendations that inclusion is successful in Iraq and the broader Arab world as a legal update to expand the meaning of \\\\\\\\'worker\\\\\\\\' is needed, including a national digital platform for voluntary enrollment and flexible contributions, giving financial incentives for workers and platforms, and coordinated governance between the labor ministries, social insurance bodies and platforms. It recommends the development of incomes-adaptive contribution formulae, and the evaluation of the incentive schemes for their fiscal sustainability.

The concept of power in international relations is witnessing profound transformations imposed by the technological and scientific revolution that has reshaped the overall structure of state power. Power has shifted from its traditional notion—based solely on material and military factors—to more complex dimensions that include cognitive, technological, and digital capabilities. The techno-military revolution emerges as one of the most significant manifestations of this shift, where military superiority has become dependent on the ability to possess advanced technologies, ranging from artificial intelligence and military robotics to smart weapons and cyberspace dominance. Conversely, traditional power—represented by armies and physical armament—still constitutes an indispensable pillar for deterrence and control. However, it has lost its central position in favor of technological power, which has become the main driver of contemporary conflicts. This study aims to analyze the concept of the techno-military revolution as a new stage in the evolution of power, by examining the dialectical relationship between traditional deterrence tools and cyber power, and their impact on regional and international power balances.
Furthermore, the study explores how this transformation reshapes the global order, especially with the emergence of new actors whose technological superiority sometimes exceeds that of major powers with vast military arsenals. The research concludes that power in the twenty-first century has become multidimensional, and that international balance is no longer measured solely by traditional military indicators but rather by the extent to which states possess and employ advanced technology to achieve their strategic, military, and political objectives.

Criminal liability for the infringement of intellectual property rights is one of the most significant contemporary legal issues, especially in light of the rapid scientific and technological developments that have increased the frequency of violations against intellectual and creative works. Intellectual property represents the legal framework that safeguards the rights of authors, inventors, and creators in various literary, artistic, scientific, and industrial fields, ensuring both moral and material benefits from their creations. Recognizing the gravity of acts that infringe upon these rights and their negative impact on innovation and the national economy, legislators have enacted criminal provisions that penalize acts such as counterfeiting, unauthorized reproduction, or unlawful exploitation of works and inventions. Criminal liability arises when an individual intentionally commits an infringement that fulfills the material, moral, and legal elements of the crime. The applicable laws stipulate penalties ranging from fines and imprisonment to the confiscation of counterfeit products and the closure of offending establishments, aiming to achieve both general and specific deterrence while protecting the creative environment. The importance of this study lies in highlighting the necessity of activating effective legal mechanisms and promoting awareness of the importance of respecting intellectual property rights as a fundamental pillar for building a sustainable knowledge-based economy and a society that values creativity and innovation.

The autonomous ship represents a new and advanced type of maritime transport , as it relies on a set of intelligent systems that enable it, to a certain extent ,to navigate by itaelf, although this innovation is seen as beneficial to society by reducing maritime collisions, limiting pollution, and achieving faster transportation, it is not without challenges, this is due to the fact that such a ship incorporated artificial intelligence, which grants it the ability to carry out legal acts without human intervention , this raises the need ,fitst ,to examine the nature of this ship, in which both material and immaterial elements are combined, and to question whether it can enjoy legal personality merely because it can enjoy legal personality merely because it possesses the attribute of autonomy , moreover, as these ships are considered a modern phenomenon in the maritime field, making them suitable for navigation requires the establishment of legal regulation for their operation to ensure greater safety, indeed, the legislative vacuum in this regard may lead to reduced public trust in such vessels.

This study discusses the legal liability of oil companies operating in Basra for the environmental damage they cause, in light of relevant Iraqi legislation. It also examines the provisions of the technical services contract for some of these companies operating in Basra Governorate, one of Iraqs richest oil provinces.
Despite its economic returns, the governorate has witnessed an increase in environmental pollution, the spread of diseases, and the deterioration of agricultural and marine life as a result of oil activities. It also highlights the legal environmental obligations of oil companies, which are supposed to be obligated to develop policies to prevent and address environmental damage. However, the environmental reality in Basra proves the weakness of this assumption, as there is a large gap between the stipulated environmental obligations and the tangible environmental dimension in Basra Governorate. This has negatively impacted the reality of sustainable development in the field of environmental sustainability. Therefore, this gap must be reduced by activating some environmental systems

The researcher examining the drift in Syrian-Lebanese relations after the collapse of Syrian president )Bashar al-Assad\\'s( regime, the researcher suggests that this is a crucial turning point which altered the regional power balance. The change thus contributed to removal of the classic Syrian tutelage and indirect control over Lebanon in several fields. Loss of former Syrian regime had a profound impact on regional influence networks. Lebanon has constituted one of the principal extensions for the network over last two decades. Consequently, profound and successive changes occurred in the heart of politic land of each country. Both Damascus and Beirut have endeavored to make the most of this regional setting when establishing a new political configuration that meets current regionally focused guidelines. However, the durability of this nascent reality depends on both parties which are trying hard by every means to fill in their own exclusive version of what regional order should look like in this time period of change to work out just and cooperative cooperation patterns within a changing regional order.

The 2005 Iraqi Constitution laid the foundational framework for a federal state in Iraq following the collapse of the former regime in 2003. It delineated the structure and powers of the federal authorities, the regions, and the governorates not incorporated into a region. However, certain constitutional provisions concerning the distribution of powers are characterized by overlap and contradiction, which has led to varied interpretations. This is despite the Constitution’s clear intent to establish a functional federal system and facilitate the formation of regions.
One significant constitutional development is the granting of extensive powers to governorates not affiliated with a region—powers that closely resemble those of the regions themselves. Although the Constitution adopts administrative decentralization in managing these governorates, some provisions deviate from this principle. Notably, provincial councils have been granted legislative authority, including precedence over federal legislation in areas of shared jurisdiction. This legislative power inherently includes the authority to impose local taxes and fees, which may subject residents of certain governorates—as well as foreign investors and residents—to local levies in addition to federal taxation. This raises the potential for double taxation and administrative confusion.
Given this context, the primary aim of this study is to examine the implementation of administrative decentralization in Iraq by analyzing relevant constitutional and legal texts. The research seeks to identify contradictions within these texts regarding the authority of provincial councils to impose local taxes and fees. It further investigates the federal government’s practices in restricting this constitutional jurisdiction. The study concludes that administrative decentralization does not inherently conflict with granting governorates taxing authority, provided such powers are clearly defined through federal legislation. It also recommends avoiding temporary provisions in annual budget laws that grant short-term fee-imposing powers and emphasizes the importance of strengthening local administrative institutions to enhance their leadership and governance capacities at the governorate level.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the function and activity of the state expanded, which necessitated the issuance of rapid legislation to deal with emergency situations. This development led the state to temporarily override legal principles, thereby weakening the principle of legality for a specific period Consequently, the executive branch was granted temporary legislative powers, enabling it to issue decrees with the force of law. The
legislative branch, however, retained the right to oversee these decisions and determine their fate upon its session.As these exceptional circumstances occur when parliament is not in
session, it becomes necessary to issue regulations by parliamentary delegation, known as \\"delegated regulations.\\" This prompted most constitutions to regulate this situation by temporarily suspending some legal texts . Therefore, to guarantee human rights, the administrative judiciary worked to strike a balance between the exceptional powers of the administration and the freedoms of individuals by subjecting the decisions issued to the oversight of the administrative judiciary .

Translation of the Text on Popular Sovereignty
The theory of popular sovereignty means that the ultimate authority in the state stems from the people, rather than from a single ruler. Political legitimacy is based on the consent of the people, and legitimacy here is the foundation of the government\'s authority, derived from the will of the people, whom it is expected to serve. Elections, through the selection of elected representatives, are a primary embodiment of this principle.
The concept of sovereignty differs across various systems. For example, in democratic systems, the people are viewed as the source of legitimacy, whereas in some Islamic systems, divine sovereignty is seen as the basis for rule, alongside popular sovereignty as a mechanism for its application.
The core principles of this theory include:
The source of authority is the people, who are the source of political power.
The government derives its legitimacy from the consent of the people. If it ignores the will of the people, its authority becomes illegitimate.
The people exercise their authority through elected representatives. Some hold the view that the representative is an agent of the voters in their constituency and is obligated to implement their instructions.
Suffrage (the right to vote) is considered a natural right of the people, not merely a function

Religious sanctities are considered part of the spiritual beliefs of man and an integral part of his life and basic being. Any assault or violation of it, whether in word or deed, is considered an attack on his person, his thoughts, and all religious matters related to him Therefore, organizations and countries have sought to establish legal mechanisms and rules that work to protect religious sanctities from any attack that may affect them, whether this attack is actual or verbal, through what some extremist groups are doing Who publishes articles or topics that include insults to other religions, including Islam, Therefore, in this research, we will attempt to demonstrate the extent of legal and international protection provided for religious sanctities to ensure their safety from the violations that they face and to work to provide legal protection for them.

This study examines how the presidential system and the two-party structure in the United States shape the process of public policymaking, emphasizing the extent to which legislative and executive actions are influenced by partisan alignment or division. The findings indicate that divided government—when the president and the congressional majority come from different parties—constitutes a critical factor that often produces legislative gridlock and hinders policy advancement. By contrast, unified partisan control tends to enhance the efficiency of decision-making and facilitates the passage of policy initiatives.
Methodologically, the research adopts a comparative analytical approach, drawing on multiple presidential periods that experienced varying levels of partisan cohesion and division. This approach clearly demonstrates the direct relationship between partisan configurations and the effectiveness of policymaking within the American political system

One of the most salient uses of generative artificial intelligence is deepfakes because it uses sophisticated algorithms that are capable of creating images, sounds, and videos that are hard to believe as fake. The complex legal and ethical issues have appeared due to this technological advancement as now it is possible to exploit this technology to infringe on privacy, defamation, manipulation of digital evidence, and even impact the democratic process by misinforming the media and creating a fake news. The threat of deepfakes is that they compromise the concept of trust in the digital content, and it puts the legislators in dilemmas of establishing the legal framework that would provide the freedom of invention and at the same time safeguard the basic rights of individuals. Among others, one of the biggest is the issue of finding criminal responsibility in creating or sharing fake content and the degree to which this action could be regarded as a type of cyber fraud. Thus, it is important to discuss this phenomenon on academic and legal level with the purpose to comprehend its technical and social aspects and to develop the balanced legislation in order to prevent the prevention of technological innovation, while simultaneously protecting the privacy of individuals and society.

This research aims to analyze the nature of Turkish intervention in Iraq, identifying its causes, objectives, and repercussions on Iraqi national security and the regional environment. The research demonstrates that Turkish intervention is one of the most complex issues in relations between the two countries, given its entanglement with historically significant security, political, and geographical concerns. The intervention is largely based on Turkish national security considerations, particularly the presence of the Kurdistan Workers\' Party (PKK) within Iraqi territory. This has prompted Turkey to conduct cross-border military operations and expand its security and intelligence presence in northern Iraq. The research clarifies that the motives for Turkish intervention are not limited to security considerations but also include geopolitical considerations related to enhancing regional influence, protecting economic interests, controlling energy and trade routes, and preventing the establishment of a Kurdish entity that could threaten Turkish territorial integrity. The research also discusses Ankara\'s immediate objectives, namely neutralizing the PKK threat, alongside its long-term goals of establishing strategic influence in Iraq through economic and military cooperation.

\"International disputes over shared oil fields are among the global issues with multifaceted political, legal, and economic dimensions. Such disputes necessitate the pursuit of peaceful and diplomatic means, including negotiation, good offices, mediation, inquiry, conciliation, and political settlement. Legal avenues, such as arbitration and international adjudication, are conducted through the nomination of negotiating teams by the disputing states. These teams are entrusted with proposing and formulating appropriate legal solutions, such as agreements, treaties, or legal contracts that regulate the management, production, exploitation, and development of shared oil fields, subject to the consent of the concerned parties and in a manner that preserves their respective interests.\".

The need for sustainable peace has become paramount in light of the conflicts, wars, and ethnic and political disputes that have plagued multicultural societies. This has led to the adoption of mechanisms such as \"transitional justice\" to address the legacy of gross human rights violations. Transitional justice is thus closely linked to peacebuilding efforts, dismantling the root causes of violence, and establishing a new social contract based on non-violence. However, this does not preclude the existence of overlap between the concepts of \"transitional justice\" and \"peacebuilding,\" given the multiplicity of cultural, social, and ethnic identities and the diversity of their perspectives on reconciliation, accountability, justice, and collective memory.
While transitional justice is considered a mechanism for peacebuilding in multicultural and multi-identity societies, its implementation can sometimes be more complex, especially when it is coupled with the exclusion, marginalization, and non-recognition of minorities. This can transform transitional justice into a mechanism that perpetuates division and fragmentation in multicultural societies rather than transcending them.









فالعدالة الانتقالية وإن عدت آلية لبناء السلام في مجتمعات التعددية الثقافية والهويات، فإن تطبيقها أحياناً يكون أكثر تعقيداً لاسيما عندما تقترن بإقصاء وتهميش الأقليات وعدم الاعتراف بها، مما يجعل من العدالة الانتقالية مجرد آلية تعمل على إعادة إنتاج الانقسام والتفكك في المجتمعات المتعددة الثقافات بدلاً من تجاوزه .

Remote Litigation Is The Use Of Digital Technology To Facilitate Judicial Procedures Without The Need For Physical Presence In Court. This System Relies On The Use Of Electronic Platforms To File Lawsuits, Exchange Documents, Hold Court Sessions, And Issue Judgments Online. Remote Litigation Allows Judges, Lawyers, And Litigants To Conduct Judicial Processes Efficiently And Quickly, Which Contributes To Reducing Costs And Time.
The Advantages Of Remote Litigation Include Improving Access To Justice, Especially In Remote Areas Or For Individuals Who Face Difficulty In Moving. It Also Enhances Efficiency And Reduces Congestion In Courts. However, This System Faces Challenges Such As The Digital Divide, Cybersecurity Issues, And Difficulty In Accessing Technology For Some Groups. The Technical Means Used In Remote Litigation Include: Electronic Lawsuit Filing Platforms, Video Conferencing Applications, Electronic Signatures, And Digital Evidence Exchange Tools. To Develop This System, The Technical Infrastructure Must Be Strengthened, Legal Legislation Must Be Updated, And Lawyers And Judges Must Be Trained To Deal With Modern Technologies.

This research examines the concept of international cooperation through its linguistic and terminological dimensions, highlighting the key regional organizations and conventions dedicated to combating corruption. It proceeds to analyze the phenomenon of corruption, defining its linguistic, conceptual, and international parameters, while showcasing the strategies adopted by the global community to curb its proliferation—most notably the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) and the OECD Anti-Bribery Convention. Furthermore, the study explores the opportunities and mechanisms for international cooperation in countering corruption, alongside the prominent legal, administrative, technical, and international challenges that impede its effectiveness. Finally, the research discusses the prospects and future of international cooperation in formulating a more efficacious global strategy for anti-corruption, drawing upon past experiences and current developments.\\"

The electronic store represents one of the most prominent manifestations of transformation in commercial transactions within the digital environment. Rapid technological developments have created a new commercial reality that has necessitated legislative intervention to regulate this activity through clear legal frameworks that take into account its technical characteristics and legal implications. This study examines the legal regulation of the electronic store by clarifying its concept, identifying its elements and conditions of establishment, and highlighting the legal protection afforded to it.
The study adopts a comparative approach, through an examination of the Iraqi Electronic Commerce Regulation No. (4) of 2025, and a comparison with the Saudi Electronic Commerce Law of 2019 and Federal Decree-Law No. (14) of 2023 concerning commerce through modern technological means in the United Arab Emirates, with the aim of identifying areas of convergence and divergence in the regulation of this emerging commercial activity.
The study concludes that the electronic store is no longer merely a technical means for conducting trade, but has evolved into an integrated legal framework whose rules give rise to direct legal effects affecting the parties to the contractual relationship. This is particularly evident in light of the absence of physical inspection and the information asymmetry between the trader and the consumer. The study further emphasizes the pivotal role of intellectual property rules in protecting the digital identity of the electronic store, as well as the importance of regulating the obligations of the electronic trader in achieving contractual balance and enhancing trust in digital commercial transactions

This study addresses the radical shifts induced by 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) technology within the general theory of construction contracts. The contract is no longer merely an agreement for \\"effort\\" or a physical \\"result,\\" but has evolved into a complex system of digital and industrial obligations where the liability of the \\"contractor\\" intertwines with that of the \\"machine\\" and the \\"technology provider.\\" The research discusses the characterization of this contract under Iraqi law, which oscillates between traditional \\"construction contracts\\" and the \\"sale of future goods,\\" amidst a legislative environment suffering from rigidity in quality control laws and building regulations, rendering execution prone to nullity due to the illegality of the object. Adopting a comparative analytical approach, the study utilizes \\"Dubai Decree No. (24) of 2021\\" as a benchmark to demonstrate the legislative transition from \\"technological neutrality\\" to \\"proactive regulation.\\" The research concludes that the general rules of the Iraqi Civil Code—particularly the separation of design from execution—are insufficient to accommodate the unity of \\"design and machine,\\" proposing a sui generis regulatory framework that redefines engineering obligations to include \\"data integrity\\" and \\"algorithmic efficiency.\\"

The research deals with the executive powers of the head of state in successive Iraqi constitutions, through an analysis of the constitutional texts that regulated this position and the nature of the powers granted to him and their limits in each constitution, from the Basic Law of 1925 up to the effective Constitution of the Republic of Iraq of 2005. The research starts from the problem that the organization of the position of the head of state has not witnessed constitutional stability, which affected the nature of the powers that It is entrusted to the head of state, especially the executive ones.
The research concluded that the constitutional instability in organizing the position of the head of state, in addition to the transitional nature of some constitutions, contributed to creating a discrepancy in the organization of the executive powers of the head of state, as some constitutions granted the head of state limited and formal executive powers, while in other constitutions his executive powers were actual and broad, especially under the 1970 Interim Constitution. All of this constituted a decisive factor in determining the nature of the executive powers granted to the President of the Republic in The 2005 Constitution remained in force, most of which was characterized by formality, and in a manner consistent with the philosophy of the followed political system, and as a reaction to what the president had previously done. We have proposed granting the President of the Republic an important role in the field of the executive function, as he is one of its poles, and in a manner consistent with the nature of the followed political system, through a more precise constitutional treatment that ensures achieving balance and cooperation between the authorities, especially since the President of the Republic under the 2005 Constitution. Responsible, which requires granting him real powers commensurate with his responsibility. Responsibility revolves around the existence and absence of authority, and this is consistent with the nature of the adopted political system.

Our research addresses topic (Legal protection of information privacy in the age of algorithmic decisions) about that artificial intelligence technologies cause in a very complex problem she is a violation of individuals’ right to privacy of their personal data and information and what follows from that from is an urgent need for new and detailed legal formulations that guarantee the protection of the right to privacy, This right is no longer as simple as it seems was when the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted in 1948 and its specific wording was followed by most constitutional legislations in the countries of the world, By doing of artificial intelligence become human rights are being violated With his consent; but without their knowledge or understanding of how this is happening, Our research deals with the statement what is the right to privacy in terms of its statement concept and forms as well as the risks of artificial intelligence right to the privacy such as data collection analysis and use lack of transparency and weak accountability, Our research also addresses the constitutional mechanisms for protecting individuals\' right to privacy of their personal data and information in the face of artificial intelligence through constitutional texts and the role of the judiciary in protecting this right, It also addresses international mechanisms for protecting the right to privacy of individuals’ data and information with regard to artificial intelligence through international treaties and the role of international courts in protecting the right to privacy.

The principle of the hierarchy of legal norms constitutes the structural bedrock that ensures the coherence and unity of any legislative system, serving as a fundamental guarantee for translating theoretical constitutional supremacy into a practical framework that regulates the conduct of public authorities. This study aims to analyze the impact of this normative hierarchy on the stability of the Iraqi constitutional order, particularly given the unique federal arrangements established by the 2005 Constitution, which encompasses multiple legislative levels. The necessity of this research arises from the observable tension between supreme constitutional mandates and legislative or administrative practices that have occasionally bypassed legal rank, necessitating judicial intervention to harmonize the “Constitutional Bloc”. Adopting an analytical and inductive methodology, the research dissects the judicial philosophy of the Federal Supreme Court of Iraq in its capacity as the guardian of the legal pyramid. The study reaches several key conclusions, most notably that the Iraqi constitutional judiciary has effectively contributed to fostering \\"legal certainty\\" by adjudicating major disputes over financial and sovereign jurisdictions through the lens of constitutional priority. However, the study identifies significant challenges pertaining to the flexibility of judicial interpretation and its subsequent effect on the stability of established legal positions. The research concludes with a set of recommendations aimed at reinforcing hierarchical discipline, including the explicit constitutional determination of the status of international treaties and the activation of ex-ante consultative roles for the Council of State to ensure prior constitutional compliance, thereby sustaining the overall stability of the Iraqi constitutional architecture.

The Public Prosecution is based on the idea of public right, which led to the development of the Public Prosecution. The Public Prosecution, which is a key component of the judicial system, is a force that should not be underestimated. Constitutions are created to safeguard these ideals and values, as they represent a social and political covenant. Since the Public Prosecution\'s organization of the lives of people and groups within legal frameworks is consistent with the constitution, it is seen as a protector of public rights and liberties. Because it is a supervisory organization with the goal of promoting fairness and equality, it is a system for achieving justice in the nation and a real assurance that the constitution is supreme and that rights and liberties are not violated. Its function is reflected in its defense of the state system and its security in order to uphold the paramount interests of the populace. The function of the Public Prosecution in monitoring the constitutionality of laws and regulations, as well as its connection to the Federal Supreme Court, were the subject of this research. By examining constitutional documents pertaining to the functions of the Public Prosecution and its function in upholding the constitutionality of legislation and regulations, the researcher used the content analysis technique. The theoretical framework of the investigation was presented in the second section, with an emphasis on the key concepts of the study, such as the Public Prosecution, the public prosecutor, the constitution, supervision, and constitutional review of laws and regulations. The characteristics of the public prosecution, the significance of constitutional review of laws, the various forms of constitutional review of laws and regulations, and the function of the written constitution in the advent of constitutional review of laws were all discussed. The study\'s key findings were covered in the third part. These findings highlight a clear disconnect between the Public Prosecution\'s theoretical function and its actual practice, as well as legislative and procedural flaws that restrict its capacity to carry out its constitutional duty of overseeing laws. Additionally, the results highlight the necessity for a more robust legal framework, better appeal procedures, and greater stability in the Federal Supreme Court in order to ensure better constitutional supervision.

Peacebuilding and transitional justice are fundamental concepts that have gained significant traction in the post-conflict era. This concept has evolved over the decades, beginning with the philosophical ideas of medieval thinkers Immanuel Kant and Pascal in the 18th century, continuing through the establishment of the United Nations and the League of Arab States in the mid-20th century, and culminating in the concepts of Johan Galtung and Oliver Richmond. Following the Cold War, modern initiatives such as the Peace Agenda proposed by UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali have emerged, contributing to a broader understanding of peacebuilding that encompasses social, political, and economic dimensions.
In this context, the study indicates that peacebuilding involves four main pillars: providing security, building strong social foundations, establishing permanent peace institutions, and achieving national reconciliation. Various intellectual approaches have emerged, some broad, encompassing all aspects of peace, and others narrow, focusing solely on security considerations.
Regarding the case of Rwanda, the efforts to build peace and transitional justice after the genocide after 1994 were evident, as this experience focused on disarmament, institutional reform, victim compensation, and building national reconciliation, which contributed to the country’s long-term stability.

Labor unions are free, legally recognized entities with corporate personality, established to achieve a balance of power in labor relations between the weaker part,) workers( and employers and the state. This research clarifies the concept of a union as an independent, voluntary organization that guarantees the rights of its members. It highlights its most prominent characteristics: its autonomy and legal personality, distinguishing its activities and objectives from other entities. The research also examines the organizational structure of the Iraqi union model, which adopts a hierarchical form, and the fundamental principles of labor union organization, including freedom of association, union pluralism, and government oversight. Furthermore, it explores how a union entity can be dissolved legally through one of three methods: self-dissolution by a decision of its general assembly, administrative dissolution by a decision of the competent authority, or judicial dissolution by a court ruling. The research also addresses the most significant consequences of dissolution, such as the loss of legal personality and the liquidation of union assets according to internal regulations or the law. One of the most prominent recommendations is the necessity of updating union legislation to enhance its independence and representation, ensuring its compliance with international standards, thus enabling it to become an active partner in achieving social justice and sustainable development.

As a strategic resource often referred to as the \"new oil,\" not as a physical commodity, but as a knowledge-based asset driving economic growth and societal transformation. It is a crucial investment tool, providing countries and companies with the ability to innovate, increase efficiency, and achieve sustainable development. The impact of AI is particularly evIdent in key sectors: in healthcare, through early diagnosis, precise treatment, and epidemic prediction; in education, via personalized learning, digital education platforms, and student performance enhancement; and In law, through smart courts, legal data analysis, and accelerating access to justice. Despite its significant benefits, AI presents ethical and legal challenges, including privacy protection, ensuring fairness, and avoiding algorithmic bias. Therefore, investing in AI requires a strategic and responsible approach, supported by clear regulatory frameworks to balance innovation with human protection.In conclusion, AI represents the most critical resource of the 21st century and a fundamental driver for the future of sustainable development and the global knowledge economy.The research adopted the descriptive-analytical method by examining the conceptual framework of artificial intelligence and comparing it to oil as a traditional resource, while analyzing the relevant legal and regulatory dimensions.
The study concluded that artificial intelligence represents a contemporary strategic resource akin to “cognitive oil,” as it has become a fundamental pillar in the development of vital sectors such as healthcare, education, and law by enhancing efficiency and improving service quality. Despite its significant developmental benefits, it raises ethical and legal challenges related to privacy and liability. Moreover, the absence of a national productive infrastructure in this field may lead to digital dependency that undermines sovereignty and sustainable development.

This research deals with the discussion of the concept of judicial expansion, its legitimate limits, and when it turns into exceeding the limits of jurisdiction, and it is based on the hypothesis that the constitutional competencies prescribed for the Federal Supreme Court in some of them are flexible discrimination in terms of the parties or in terms of the subject matter of jurisdiction, which gave the court a wide space for judicial jurisprudence in interpreting the limits of this jurisdiction in a broad or narrow way, and the research focused on the analysis of Article 93 of the 2005 Constitution, especially the third, fourth and fifth paragraphs as one of the jurisdictions with The research concluded that the third paragraph establishes a dispute jurisdiction that can only be held in the presence of a dispute that arose from the actual application of a federal legislation or procedure that resulted in a direct legal effect that distinguishes it from the constitutional control stipulated in paragraph one, as the research showed that the fourth and fifth paragraphs are directed to disputes between government units, and that the inaccuracy of the constitutional wording and the absence of a clear definition of the place of dispute in the procedural organization contributed to opening the field of jurisprudence for the Federal Supreme Court. Examining some of proposals, foremost of which is the legislation of a law detailing the jurisdiction of the Federal Supreme Court in line with what is stated in Article 92/paragraph two, and an amendment, as well as calling for the reformulation of the fourth and fifth paragraphs in a way that eliminates ambiguity and prevents a specialization vacuum, and ensures the direction of judicial expansion within its legitimate constitutional limits.

This research examines the problematic nature of the social contract in post-2003 Iraq, in light of the profound political and constitutional transformations that followed the regime change. It seeks to analyze the nature of the relationship between the state and society, and the extent to which the principles of political legitimacy, citizenship, and equality of rights and duties have been realized. It also focuses on the impact of sectarian and ethnic power-sharing and weak institutions in hindering the formation of a comprehensive social contract. The research concludes that the absence of national consensus and equitable development has contributed to the fragility of political stability and the decline of trust between citizens and the state.

Iraq’s experience with the crimes of genocide committed by ISIS against religious minorities—particularly the Yazidi community—demonstrates how international justice has not been immune to politicization and political instrumentalization. Although these crimes met the criteria of genocide under the 1948 Convention, international recognition of them has fluctuated between legal considerations and political interests. This was reflected in the positions of the UN Security Council and the mechanisms of the International Criminal Court, where accountability procedures were delayed and subject to the power balances of major states.
UN Security Council Resolution 2379 (2017), which established the UN Investigative Team (UNITAD), represented an important step in documenting the crimes; however, its impact remained limited due to political constraints that prevented broad international prosecutions. The Iraqi role in attempting to internationalize the case and mobilize international support was also evident, yet political challenges curtailed the effectiveness of these efforts.
This case underscores that politicization in the application of international justice undermines its credibility and renders it selective, raising serious questions about the future of the international legal system and the possibility of reforming it to ensure independence from political pressures.

This research addresses an important resource that flows into the general budget as it is from the revenue side, which constitutes the mass of financial assets upon which the state relies for expenditures. This revenue is the fee and service charge or the cost of the service provided by public facilities in the state. The issue of service charges has raised significant jurisprudential differences regarding its legal basis and legitimacy. The reason for this is that this newly introduced revenue is the responsibility of the executive authority in setting the texts upon which this revenue is based. Therefore, the research highlighted the meaning of fees and service charges, as well as the minister’s authority in regulating fees and service charges. The research also addressed the federal minister’s authority to impose this type of public revenue. The research also touched upon the legal basis for imposing fees and service charges by explaining the constitutional and legislative basis. This research also addressed the legal organization of imposing fees and service charges, as well as their collection and exemption from them.

This study traverses two complementary chains, The first is necrophilia, meaning the love of death, and relates to a psychological deviation based on transforming every living thing into the dead, In other words, dealing with existence in a uniquely mechanistic way, one that seeks to destroy it, The second is the tendency to use technological power that has alienated humanity and distanced emotional aspects from the destructive outcome of using this energy, Thus, necrophilia is linked to the politics of death, of which the most important image is the violated human being, Thus, the study established the relationship between the politics of death and necrophilia and this being and the concept of sovereignty associated with it , It also focused on the politics of necrophilia and its relationship to totalitarian, vital, and liberal political power, Finally, it examines the images of these policies when we consider the Holocaust and then the contemporary genocide in Gaza

International agreements related to copyright and intellectual property in general often refer to the three-step test, one of the most important and oldest standards adopted in drafting these agreements, as well as in regional and national legislation influenced by their provisions. The three-step test addresses the formulation of restrictions and exceptions to ensure they do not infringe upon copyright, and it balances public and private interests when imposing such restrictions and exceptions. According to this standard, permissible uses of copyrighted works and subjects should be limited to specific and particular cases that do not conflict with their natural exploitation and do not unreasonably harm the legitimate interests of the rights holder. This study examines this test as a binding standard not only for the drafting of relevant national laws but also for courts when interpreting and applying those laws By examining the meaning of this standard, its scope of application, those it addresses, and explaining those steps individually, it became clear that these are issues that are still unclear to some and are subject to many viewpoints, especially with recent developments in many fields, including, but not limited to, the extent of its applicability to the digital environment and to the use of works or compositions that take a digital form

efficient justice can no longer be achieved without integrating information and communication technologies into case management and judicial procedures. Technology does not merely enhance administrative efficiency; it also directly affects procedural guarantees by facilitating access to justice, expediting dispute resolution, and reducing litigation costs. The 2005 Iraqi Constitution guarantees the right to litigation and a fair trial, which requires that digital transformation strengthen rather than undermine these safeguards. At the international level, e-justice is closely linked to human rights standards, particularly those established in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which mandates a fair and public hearing before a competent, independent, and impartial tribunal within a reasonable time. Nevertheless, this transformation raises significant legal and judicial challenges, including data protection, the evidentiary value of electronic documents, the rights of defense, and the publicity of proceedings, necessitating legislative reforms that balance technological efficiency with constitutional guarantees.

This study aims to analyze the evolution of party systems in the Arab Spring countries through a comparative approach. It examines the factors influencing the emergence and development of political parties and their role in the political process after the Arab Spring events, focusing on the challenges faced by new party systems amid political, social, and economic transformations. The study concludes that the party systems in these countries are still in a transitional phase, with varying experiences of successes and failures in establishing democracy and enabling political participation

Crises within the political system are among the most significant challenges to state stability. These crises directly affect the effectiveness of state institutions, the structural integrity of governance, and the state\'s ability to perform its core functions. Such crises often stem from imbalances in political legitimacy, weak governance institutions, widespread corruption, conflicts among political and social forces, or the inability to respond to citizens’ aspirations.
Prolonged political crises lead to a breakdown in trust between society and the state, weakening internal cohesion and threatening national unity and stability. These conditions can foster an environment conducive to protests, separatist movements, civil conflicts, or even foreign intervention.
Conversely, wise management of these crises—through genuine political reforms and the activation of mechanisms for participation, transparency, and accountability—can restore confidence in the system and strengthen stability. Therefore, understanding the roots of political crises and addressing them systematically is essential for preserving the state structure and ensuring the sustainability of its institutions.

This study explores the legal implications arising from lease agreements involving state-owned property, which represent one of the principal forms of administrative contracts used to manage and invest public real estate in pursuit of the public interest. Owing to its administrative character, this type of agreement is subject to the rules of public law and is distinguished by the prerogatives granted to public authorities—features that directly shape the legal standing of both parties involved The research seeks to examine the responsibilities and duties borne by the administration in its capacity as the lessor of public property, alongside the corresponding obligations of the contracting party. It further aims to clarify how the administrative nature of such lease agreements influences the determination of these obligations and the legal consequences that may arise in cases of non-compliance To achieve these objectives, the study adopts a descriptive and analytical methodology, reviewing the relevant legislative provisions, assessing scholarly legal opinions, and analyzing the principles established by administrative courts in this field