ISIN Journal

Shalmaneser III, who ruled from 859 to 824 B.C. after succeeding his father Ashurnasirpal II, presided over a period of political stability. He had a strong appreciation for art and introduced innovative sculptural styles. To mark his accomplishments, Shalmaneser III often used bronze plates on wooden gates rather than commissioning statues, since relief carvings were more popular among artists at the time. Only four statues of Shalmaneser III are known to exist today: two are found in the Iraqi National Museum, one in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum, and the last in the British Museum.

Metals first appeared in Mesopotamia after communities settled and agricultural villages flourished. This shift made it possible to discover metals and use them for making diverse tools, sculptures—including human figures—ornaments, and furnishings. People in Mesopotamia began working with metals as early as the latter part of the Chalcolithic Age (around 5600–3500 B.C.). A wide range of metals became vital raw materials for many crafts and industries. By the early fourth millennium B.C., Mesopotamian societies had developed techniques for utilising metals to manufacture tools and instruments essential to daily activities. They produced a variety of agricultural implements, including ploughs and axes, as well as household utensils, jewellery, and statues. Initial tools were crafted from copper, with subsequent use of bronze, and later other metals such as tin, lead, gold, silver, and iron. The introduction of metalworking by the Sumerians is regarded as a major technological advancement, comparable to the development of writing, due to its substantial influence on the progression of civilisation, cultural practices, and the arts.

The Mesopotamian civilisation is recognised as one of the most advanced ancient cultures in the field of astronomy. Scholars in the discipline have examined these societies extensively, contributing significantly to our understanding of the astronomical knowledge generated by ancient peoples. Early developments in astronomy were deeply intertwined with religious beliefs associated with planets and stars. Priests employed astronomical techniques to forecast events such as natural disasters or the destinies of rulers. Due to its significance, the systematic observation of planets and other celestial bodies became a notable achievement of ancient Iraqi civilisation. These observations originated primarily within temples, where priests regarded the study of the night sky as a method of communicating with deities.

The gods' grief in Mesopotamian mythology is crucial for understanding the ancient world, as it reveals the interplay between natural forces and human emotions. Through religious and mythological practices, ancient peoples tried to comprehend their place in the universe. This theme highlights the spiritual and intellectual depth of Sumerian and Akkadian societies. The gods, while powerful and controlling life and the universe, also displayed human feelings, making them relatable. Many legends describe the gods' sorrow, such as Inanna (Ishtar) mourning her lover Tammuz, which affects the earth's fertility and symbolises the connection between life and death. Rituals were performed to appease the gods and express sadness—entire seasons of mourning were dedicated to reflecting anxiety and fear. Each god was associated with specific symbols, such as flowing rivers or storms, that represented their emotions. These phenomena were understood as signs of the gods' grief or anger toward the inhabitants or rulers.

Agricultural development in Mesopotamia benefited significantly from its strategic location, providing access to abundant water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The residents of this region have recognised the value of these resources since ancient times and have implemented sophisticated irrigation systems to manage water distribution to their fields efficiently. Fertile soils and a temperate climate further enabled a diverse range of crops, including wheat, barley, sesame, and vegetables. Agriculture played a fundamental role not only economically but also in supporting community stability and urban expansion. Additionally, careful management of natural resources contributed to the emergence of advanced civilisations, such as the Sumerians and Babylonians, whose contributions remain notable in the annals of human history.

Throughout the first half of the millennium BC, the Assyrians maintained dominance by establishing their empire on a foundation of military strength. Their army was highly organised and effective, successfully overcoming all adversaries. During this era, Babylonia, characterised by its complex political landscape and the presence of marshes, swamps, and lakes in the southern region, served as a refuge for dissenters. This area presented significant strategic challenges to the Assyrian forces and was referred to in Assyrian records as the Land of the Sea. The difficult terrain became the site of ongoing conflict between the Assyrian military and the marsh inhabitants, including rebels opposing Assyrian rule.
The purpose of this research is to assess the Assyrian perspective on this region and highlight its pivotal influence on historical developments, drawing on cuneiform sources and stone carvings from the walls of Assyrian palaces.

This study investigates the historical trajectory of the Kingdom of Eshnunna, emphasising its political and cultural evolution through an analysis of its leading rulers, notwithstanding the limited availability of primary historical sources. The research utilises archaeological evidence and findings from scientific excavations in the Diyala region and adjacent areas to elucidate the kingdom's location and principal urban centres. Additionally, the study evaluates key archaeological sites associated with Eshnunna and details the excavation campaigns, particularly those conducted in the early twentieth century. Ultimately, the research affirms Eshnunna’s significance as a major cultural entity that enriched Mesopotamian history, characterised by distinctive local attributes within the broader context of Mesopotamian civilisation.

In 2025 BC, during the reign of King Abi-Sin, the cities became independent of Ur, and the most prominent among them was Larsa. This independence occurred during the reign of King Nabla-Nom, who founded a dynasty in Larsa. This was eight years before the city of Isin's independence under King Ishbi-Erra. The title of King of Sumer and Akkad remained, as did the kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur. The kings of the Larsa dynasty also adopted the same title, meaning King of the city of Larsa. The Sumerian language also remained the official language. The city of Larsa predates the ancient Iraqi cities in the Old Babylonian era, as evidenced by archaeological finds that confirm the city's existence since the Jemdet Nasr era (3000-2900 BC). During excavations in the city of Larsa, the excavator (Andre Baro) found an obelisk dating back to the Jemdet Nasr era.

This article explores Seleucia, a key city that held a significant place in Mesopotamian civilization during a turbulent era marked by frequent conflicts among major states and kingdoms. After Alexander the Great's empire split into three regions, each was governed by one of his leading generals: Seleucus ruled over the Levant, Mesopotamia, ancient Iran, and eastern territories; Ptolemy controlled Egypt and North Africa; and Antigonus took charge of the Greek lands and Macedonia. Tensions were common among these rulers. Seeking to move his capital from Babylon, Seleucus founded a new city named Seleucia after himself. This city became a hub for worshipping Greek gods and goddesses, with many deities blending elements of both Greek and ancient Mesopotamian traditions. In this study, we examine the city's name, its historical context, religious practices, and the archaeological excavations carried out there, highlighting the most significant artifacts discovered.

This study examines the social factors that contributed to the establishment of Pessimism among ancient Iraqis, presenting it as a symbolic and religious cognitive practice rather than solely an individual behavior. Through thorough analysis of historical records and cultural contexts, the research demonstrates that Pessimism resulted from intricate interactions among individuals, their environments, religious authorities, and society at large. Priests and astronomers significantly influenced the interpretation of natural events and their association with omens, effectively institutionalizing Pessimism as a recognised system of knowledge that impacted daily routines and important decisions. The study further investigates the connection between illness and sin, highlighting how medical and theological concepts converged, with epidemics frequently interpreted as manifestations of divine punishment. Additionally, the research addresses class stratification and its impact on reinforcing collective pessimism through mythologies and punitive customs, indicating that the examination of Pessimism provides meaningful insights into the cognitive framework of ancient Iraqi civilisation.

This research investigates how ancient Greek thought was shaped by the notion of divine wrath, viewing it as a fundamental force in defining the era's cultural and intellectual landscape. Rather than considering this concept solely as a mythological or religious idea, the study explores its role as an influential factor in steering political and social actions, and in reinforcing the values and standards guiding both individual and communal conduct.
The analysis traces how divine wrath moved beyond its religious and mythological origins, becoming a strategic tool employed by political and religious leaders to justify their power and uphold societal stability.

The purpose of this study is to shed light on the Mervanid dynasty and the types of coins in circulation during that period. A study of Mervanid coins can yield significant insights into economic, geographical, and artistic aspects, as well as the inscriptions and writings produced during this period, particularly in regions under Mervanid control. These regions were of great strategic importance, witnessing many key political events, particularly during the rule of Mamhed al-Dawla, Abu Mansur, and Abu Nasr Ahmad bin Marwan, who are considered the most prominent rulers of the Mervanids between 272-472 AH / 982-1086 AD.
They had a major influence on the region and controlled many important cities, including Miyanfarqin, which served as the state's capital, as well as Arzan. The coins circulated during that period in Miyanfarqin, Arzan, and Nisibin are among the most notable currencies used by the Mervanids. Therefore, by studying these coins, we can understand how the Mervanid rulers governed this region and managed its financial, political, and economic affairs.

The coins issued by the Shaybanid state between 906-1007 AH (1500-1599 AD) represent a significant and emerging area of research within the study of Islamic numismatics. Islamic coins serve as primary sources, providing valuable inscriptions that offer insights into Islamic history, civilization, and antiquities. As contemporary records of historical events, their authenticity and importance are beyond dispute. This study presents models of silver dirhams attributed to Abu al-Fath Muhammad Shaybani Khan, founder and prominent leader of the Shaybanid state. The discussion will focus on both descriptive and analytical examinations of the types of dirhams produced under the rule of Abu al-Fath Shaybani Khan.

Tell Aswad, an archaeological site, is situated 2 km southeast of Kufa city in Najaf Governorate. It lies on the right bank of Kil Saada, an ancient, now-extinct branch of the Euphrates River. Kil Saada diverges from the Euphrates about 17 km south of Hit, flows through Karbala and Najaf, and reaches the sea near the Bubiyan River—the historic mouth of the Euphrates, located 20 miles west of Shatt al-Arab. The local name 'Tell Aswad' has deep roots and became officially recognized when it appeared in the Iraqi Gazette (issue 2359) on 4/10/1946, later featuring in official correspondence and Castro maps. Archaeological findings at Tell Aswad indicate that settlements persisted there for a long period, revealed by the remains of various foundations.
Structures discovered include both irregular and organized buildings, along with coins dating back to the early and late Abbasid caliphs. This research highlights key information from excavation activities and examines a range of archaeological artifacts in terms of their types, shapes, and sizes.

This research investigates the Ahwaz region in southern Persia, historically referred to as "Khuzestan," "Arabistan," and "Nasiriya." These names signify the area's evolving identity, diverse civilizations, and its Arab population. The term "Ahwaz" is likely derived from the plural form of "hawz," meaning "containment" and "control" in Arabic. Due to linguistic limitations, Persians adopted "hawz" because their language lacks the letter "ḥ." The designation "Arabistan" was introduced during the Safavid era to highlight the Arab identity of the region's inhabitants.
Ahwaz occupies a strategic location in southwestern Iran, serving as a natural extension of southern Iraq and bordering the Arabian Gulf, thereby underscoring its economic and cultural significance. The region has been home to ancient civilisations since the Elamite period and has played a vital role in the Islamic scientific and literary renaissance, producing poets, scholars, and philosophers who have left a profound impact on its history.
Additionally, Ahvaz is home to notable religious and historical landmarks, such as the shrines of the Prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him) and al-Khidr (peace be upon him), which endow the region with considerable spiritual and cultural significance and affirm its place within Arab and Islamic heritage.

The preceding pages have examined the planning and architecture of Heritage Ahbish Castle. Ongoing research indicates that castles constructed during the Ottoman era were effectively halted, and their designs closely mirror those from that period. These structures were primarily built using tuff, the region’s predominant building material. Anmkar, in particular, is notable for wall thickness exceeding one meter, and the entrance orientation has been identified, despite deterioration from age and neglect.
Defensive architectural features are evident, such as the barrage facilitating outward projection. The halos were originally equipped with four towers and a cylindrical segment; however, most towers have suffered significant damage, with only one remaining in the northwestern corner, now detached from the main wall. Surviving elements include several loopholes, some of which may be positioned within the central square. The robustness of the fortification is especially apparent in relation to access to the building’s interior.

Tell al-Atishi is among the sites chosen for the rescue campaign addressing encroached areas by the General Authority for Antiquities and Heritage. This initiative aimed to prevent further encroachment and save what remained of the site. The campaign also investigated the causes of damage, which had negative impacts on two consecutive excavation seasons.
During the first season in 2007, which lasted three months, excavators uncovered building foundations damaged by encroachment, along with the first layer, which consisted of two stories. The first story was entirely destroyed, though several artefacts were recovered. The second story exposed foundations and well-structured units with brick walls; some were constructed atop older foundations, while others had different orientations.
The second season in 2008, also lasting three months and forming the basis of this research, produced results that did not match the site's scale and scope. The team encountered major challenges, such as a lack of sources: the site's name was absent from both ancient and modern records, including geographic archives. Additionally, there were no mission reports available from any scientific department within the General Authority for Antiquities, so personal effort was required to locate information.
Based on our findings, the site does not appear to be linked to significant historical events or notable figures. Its association with the name "al-Atashi" is quite recent, stemming from conclusions of the 2008 excavation, which is presented in two sections: the first covers the 2008 season’s excavations, and the second highlights key archaeological discoveries, including tables, measurements, maps, and diagrams.

This study delves deeply into archaeological restoration, examining both general principles and those specific to Islamic contexts. It highlights the strategies and approaches used to safeguard Islamic monuments, using the Great Mosque of al-Nuri in Mosul—a renowned example of Islamic architecture in Iraq—as a case study. The work explores theoretical aspects of restoration and considers Islamic monuments as cultural symbols that embody both the unity of Islamic faith and a rich diversity within architectural styles. Several restoration approaches are reviewed, including integrative, critical, and analytical restoration, each with distinct properties and suitable applications. The research investigates the various motivations for conserving Islamic heritage, including natural factors such as earthquakes and environmental degradation, human factors such as warfare and urban neglect, and challenges arising from contemporary urban growth. Restoration methods are discussed in depth, ranging from traditional hands-on techniques that maintain architectural integrity to advanced technologies such as 3D scanning and digital modelling.

This research examines the internal conflicts among Crusader factions, which undermined their presence in the Levant and contributed to their eventual collapse. Such divisions were significant factors in facilitating the Muslims' efforts to expel the Crusaders. More specifically, the study addresses disputes between the Templar and Hospitaller factions concerning the surrender of the fortress of Safed by al-Salih Ismail (600-675 AH / 1204-1276 AD), as well as disagreements involving Emperor Frederick II in 625 AH / 1228 AD. The analysis also covers points of contention between the Templars and Bohemond V in 631 AH / 1233 AD, and disputes between the Templars and King Louis IX in 649-650 AH / 1251-1252 AD. Additionally, conflicts between the Hospitallers and Bohemond V in 632 AH / 1234 AD are discussed, concluding with a review of the Teutonic Knights' disputes with Florence, Bishop of Acre.

If some believe that the concept of "personality" or "identity" refers to the same meaning, namely: the product of interaction between a group of people and a composite of stable environmental and historical conditions over a reasonable period of time, this matter was not available to the Jewish groups that spread in different parts of the world, and lived under different social conditions and they lived under different social conditions and was affected by the identities of these societies in one way or another. As a result, it is possible to use the formula of Jewish personalities and Jewish identities, and the plural form does not deny Jewish idiosyncrasies but does not combine them as if there were an essential or universal characteristic inherent in all Jews. Hence, we can discuss the manifestations of identity in Jewish theatre and examine the development of the diverse Jewish personality by examining its features derived from different times and places.
From the different opinions about the status of Jews around the world, it is clear that the Jews live in "exile," and that this situation was among the very primary foundations that constitute the substance of Jewish existence. It is in the particles that build his spiritual and existential identity. It is part of the national myth of the Jews, and that exile is not an imposed external condition, but rather an internal condition that the Jews have chosen and aspire to, and that the presence of Jews transcends any circumstance from the religious point of view, as well as from the national point of view. Since the Jews can perform the greatest vices in the eyes of their God, and they can lose all the features of their national identity and their existence remains guaranteed, they are punished, but they are not exterminated at all. In return, they are granted a sovereign existence in Palestine, just as they can exist outside Palestine, a temporary, declining existence, but they remain an existence (and few people can imagine for themselves how to preserve national identity while the whole people are exiled from their homeland).
The changes that accompanied the Jewish identity, as a professor of social psychology at the Hebrew University says, stem from the unique and specific developments of each society, from changes in the status of Jews in the non-Jewish world, and the influence of political and social movements, Jewish and public, on the life of the Jewish people. The aim is not the forms of historical change, but rather to highlight and confirm that Jewish identity, as we know it today, is the result of historical development and has been shaped by many forces that influenced it in the past and continue to shape it today.

Recently, the use of drones in surveys and field documentation of archaeological sites has become common, so that the use of drones has become a basic necessity before any archaeological excavation process, from this point of view, the idea of the research came to clarify the ambiguity and give appropriate answers to many questions asked by archaeologists, and the research shed light on everything related to the concept of drones and the beginnings of their use in archaeology, its most important components, basic parts and general characteristics, and the research reviewed the method of using them in photographing archaeological sites and collecting information with Clarifying the difference between aerial drone images and satellite imagery. The research emphasised the most important uses of drones in archaeology and their benefits for collecting and analysing archaeological information.

In this research, we will study and analyze five archaeological mounds known locally as Naheb mounds. The research is divided into three main axes: the first relates to the methodology and techniques used in studying these mounds. The second axis deals with studying the five mounds in terms of their topography, shapes, coordinates, area, and current condition in terms of their safety or the encroachments that may have occurred to them. The third axis focuses on studying the archaeological discoveries that were found during the archaeological survey process that we conducted. The research includes maps, pictures, figures, and tables to support the information provided.