Journal of college of Law for Legal and Political Sciences

: With the development of banking operations and the emergence of certain transactions that were previously unfamiliar, the need has become pressing to move away from the strict application of the principle of indivisibility of the current account—which requires merging all debit and credit transactions into a single account whose balance is settled only upon its closure—in favor of allowing the segmentation of the current account in certain cases to protect the interests of the parties or the rights of third-party creditors. Therefore, this study aims to clarify the position of comparative jurisprudence and case law regarding the segmentation of the current account as an exception to the original rule, in addition to examining the foundations upon which the judiciary relied to justify these exceptions and the stance adopted by the Egyptian and Iraqi legislators.
The study reached several conclusions, the most important of which is that although the principle of indivisibility of the current account is fundamental and constitutes an integral part of the legal nature and defining characteristics of this type of account, its application is no longer absolute. Practical experience has demonstrated that strict adherence to this principle can undermine the fairness of banking operations and jeopardize the rights of creditors in many cases.

The research discusses the role of the United States in the Russian-Ukrainian war, which has posed a significant challenge to the rules of the international system. As the sole superpower at the top of the international hierarchy, it examines the extent of its ability to control the course of the war and its expansion into other regions.
The American intervention came as part of a strategy based on the vision of not allowing any other global power to surpass the United States in military and economic fields, making this a central focus of its policy.
Therefore, the American role represents a favorable opportunity to curb Russia's ambitions, weaken it, and prevent its expansion into other geopolitical areas.
Thus, this research aims to shed light on the role played by the United States in this war, the nature of this role, and its level across all military, economic, and political dimensions accordingly.

This research analyzes the dimensions of Turkey’s presence in Iraq from geopolitical and security perspectives, focusing on its causes, historical evolution, and regional implications. Turkey aims to secure its southern border and counter security threats, particularly from the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), which operates in northern Iraq. The Turkish presence includes various forms, ranging from cross-border military operations to the establishment of permanent military bases. The study also examines the Iraqi government’s stance and regional actors’ reactions, highlighting the resulting political tensions. It concludes that Turkey’s presence in Iraq complicates the regional security landscape and poses challenges to Iraqi sovereignty and overall regional stability

Climate change is an indirect factor in the emergence and escalation of conflicts, as it acts as a multiplier of security risks. Rising temperatures, droughts, and water scarcity lead to intense competition between individuals, groups, and states, especially in politically and security-wise fragile regions. Climate change contributes to the deterioration of livelihoods such as agriculture, fishing, and herding, thereby exacerbating poverty and unemployment and increasing social violence, displacement, and migration, placing pressure on communities and weakening the state's ability to provide services and manage resources. This creates a vacuum that is exploited by armed and terrorist groups and turns into violent conflicts. Therefore, climate change must be addressed through international and national cooperation to improve resource management for peacebuilding. Effective climate action is a tool for achieving security, stability, and sustainable peace, and states must include climate security in their security plans and agendas.

Axel Honneth is one of the most prominent contemporary Western philosophers who contributed to the founding and formulation of the theory of recognition, with the aim of establishing a normative theory of justice based on the patterns of self-recognition that Honneth prepares for institutions of both individual and collective identities, and for self-realization within the fabric of Social relations, Honneth tried to structurally reintegrate forms of social conflicts and patterns of ethical experiences lived into a normative model of mutual recognition between selves.

For the Gulf countries, the initiative is an opportunity to enhance economic cooperation with China, a major trading partner. Projects in the region include investments in areas such as energy, transportation, and infrastructure. Gulf countries, such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, are seeking to diversify their economies away from oil, and participation in this initiative is a means to achieve this. Moreover, the initiative helps the Gulf countries improve their connectivity to new markets and boost economic growth, contributing to the realization of the 2030 vision of many of these countries. In general, the Belt and Road Initiative is consideredA strategic shift in relations between China and the Gulf states, with potential economic benefits Part yen Mutual.

: Child sexual exploitation, while morally reprehensible, remains a persistent phenomenon that intensifies in contexts of armed conflict. When perpetrated systematically by regular or irregular armed groups, particularly in situations where domestic legal systems fail to ensure accountability, such acts may constitute international crimes. This article examines the scope and effectiveness of international legal protection afforded to children against sexual exploitation during armed conflicts and assesses its implications for domestic legal frameworks. Relying on an analytical and inductive methodology, the study analyzes key international instruments, notably the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child and its 2000 Optional Protocol, both ratified by Iraq, alongside relevant primary and secondary sources. The article highlights the shortcomings of Iraqi legislation in providing adequate protection for children and underscores the need for legislative reform, including the enactment of a comprehensive child protection law, in line with international legal standards.

is of paramount importance to address the means that ensure the regulation of public revenues, especially since such regulation has become a necessity to counter the continuous increase in public expenditures. The success of any economic system relies on the combination of several factors, most notably the availability of public revenues to implement the state's fiscal policy. This can only be achieved through sound constitutional and legislative foundations that regulate their allocation, distribution, and spending. By referring to the principles of public finance—particularly the 'Principle of Economy in Collection' and the 'Principle of Convenience'—it becomes clear that the collection process should align with the taxpayer's circumstances, move away from traditional collection costs, and adopt modern methods such as electronic collection and the Treasury Single Account (TSA) system. This system serves as an incentive for effective management and a useful model for governments to maintain centralized control over their revenues."

Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, the United States has dominated the international system as the sole superpower, seeking to cement its hegemony by employing soft power tools, foremost of which is media, With the acceleration of globalization and the decline of sovereign barriers, media has transformed into a strategic means to reshape international collective perception to serve American interests and entrench its liberal model, Media is no longer merely a conduit for foreign policies, it has become a structural component that contributes to producing narratives that reframing the nature of conflicts and their parties, The United States has utilized this media as a platform to market a symbolic discourse that legitimizes its interventions and condemns its adversaries as threats to global security and stability, In the Russia-Ukraine war, it is clearly evident how Washington has leveraged a massive media system that includes global news channels, digital networks, and major technology companies to formulate a political discourse that legitimizes its support for Kyiv and portrays Russia as an aggressive power, Thus the war has transformed into an arena of informational and narrative competition, where the media dimension intertwines with the cyber, diplomatic, and military aspects, within what is known as hybrid media diplomacy, This employment does not merely reflect a contingent propaganda aspect, but indicates a qualitative transformation in the structure of American power, which has come to rely on media as an advanced tool of dominance to manage international crises, shape global public opinion, and reduce the costs of direct confrontation

Criminal justice seeks to defend society against crime and correct the behavior of the offender who has gone beyond the framework of society and that crime is a behavior carried out by a human being and that its emergence dates back to the beginning of the existence of humans and to this day and the forms of its commission differ from one place to another and from one time to another and from one person to another. Women are more vulnerable to crimes and cannot protect themselves due to their physiological or organic composition. The Iraqi legislator must take into account the privacy of women when enacting laws in relation to their difference from men. All crimes to which they are exposed are considered violence, whether physical or moral. Protecting women is protecting the family and society.

The new world order has recently witnessed China's development and advancement in the economic field to a great extent, as it will highlight China's domestic product in 2025 resulting from the United States of America. China has developed in all economic, political, cultural and technological fields, which has an important role in the international arena and has become It is one of the most important countries internationally and the United States fears control because China is focusing its concessions on the partial unilateral system and the formation of a new multipolar system, because this system aims to protect the interests of everyone as it is not unique to one country , In addition, China has military power and capabilities that help it employ this power, and this is what makes it an important country and has a great influence, and especially in the future, China will have a greater position, as it is the country that strongly competes with the American presence in all fields, as it follows important strategies. To influence the global system and countries, in addition to that, China uses smart power. It does not resort to force and violence, but rather, with its smart method, it has become one of the most powerful countries in the world

Israel’s foreign policy towards Sudan is part of a broader strategy to enhance its influence in Africa and the Middle East. This policy has taken clear steps towards normalization, especially after Sudan signed a peace agreement with Israel within the framework of the “Abraham Accords” in 2020. Israel seeks to achieve strategic interests that include strengthening its national security, limiting Iranian influence in the region, and opening new markets for economic cooperation. On the other hand, Sudan faces internal and political challenges that have made the normalization process a controversial issue, casting a shadow over bilateral relations and regional power balances.

This research examines the future of the American strategy in the international system, taking Afghanistan as a case study, by analyzing the transformations that occurred in U.S. foreign policy after the withdrawal. The study focuses on the United States’ objectives in maintaining its global influence and the tools it uses to manage crises and conflicts, in addition to the challenges it faced in Afghanistan, such as the rise of local actors and the decline of direct dominance. It also discusses the impact of these developments on the structure of the international system and its shift toward multipolarity, as well as the role of other international powers in filling the strategic vacuum. The research concludes that U.S. strategy is moving toward repositioning and relying on indirect tools to preserve its interests in a changing international environment

The problems of the legal mechanisms used as alternative means of resolving disputes arising from investment contracts, especially arbitration, have become clearly visible and require appropriate legislative intervention by the competent authorities. There is no doubt that the application of such means often leads to many problems, starting from the procedures and ending with the implementation, as all of them are believed to affect the essence of the sovereignty of the contracting states, if they think that the jurisdiction of the judiciary in the state as a general principle is competent to consider all disputes that arise on its territory, and regardless of the nationality of the parties to the dispute, whether national or foreign, in application of the principle of the absolute sovereignty of the state over its territory, Also, referring to international arbitration centers can be considered more mandatory than voluntary, despite the requirement that the two parties to the investment dispute agree, of their own free will, to complete the arbitration procedures, and accordingly, the Washington Agreement came with general regulatory provisions that do not specify the form and type of that approval.. Therefore, it has become necessary to expedite appropriate legislative intervention to ensure that national laws related to investment are consistent with those contained in international agreements, in order to confront the developments taking place in global trade laws, which are witnessing continuous and rapid development to join the ranks of modern technology

The subject of the right of foreigners to practice liberal professions, specifically Medicine and Law, has acquired profound importance that transcends mere labor regulation. It reaches into the depths of a state's legal and political philosophy, given that both medicine and law are intrinsically linked to the Public Order of the state. Law serves as the "second wing of justice," while medicine is responsible for "health security."
The significance of this topic highlights the extent of a state's ability to waive the nationality requirement in favor of global openness. This research is structured into three main sections:
• The First Section: Dedicated to the theoretical framework and the general conditions for foreigners working in liberal professions.
• The Second Section: Examines the legal framework governing the practice of the medical profession by foreigners.
• The Third Section: Analyzes the legal framework governing the practice of the legal profession (Law) by foreigners.
The study concludes with a set of findings, proposals, and recommendations, which I hope have successfully addressed the subject matter.

This research analyzes the political experience in Norway by examining the structure of its political system, the party landscape, and the nature of party coalitions. Norway’s system is based on parliamentary democracy and political pluralism, necessitating coalition formation to ensure stable governance. These coalitions are influenced by factors such as the economy, environmental policies, immigration, and parliamentary dynamics. The study highlights major and regional parties, explaining their role in shaping policies. It concludes that Norway’s political system is characterized by flexibility and stability, making it an important model of European democracy

With the onset of the Industrial Revolution in Europe during the mid-19th century, machines emerged to replace humans in industrial processes. The world then began to utilize technological and scientific advancements to address and facilitate various aspects of life. Despite the positive outcomes of this development, it also brought negative consequences that exposed humanity to significant dangers. Nuclear pollution occurs as a result of several factors, which are essentially a price humanity pays for scientific and technological progress. The most significant of these are radioactive leaks resulting from the operation of nuclear reactors, as well as nuclear tests conducted by nuclear powers, which generate radioactive waste

Deterrence and punitive measures alone are no longer sufficient to ensure tax compliance, as evidenced by the persistence of tax evasion despite the severity of legal penalties. Contemporary tax approaches have therefore moved beyond the traditional deterrence model toward a deeper exploration of human psychology and the analysis of underlying motivations. This shift emphasizes disciplines concerned with understanding the taxpayer’s psychological structure and the factors influencing behavior. Taxpayer psychology has thus emerged as an interdisciplinary field integrating psychology, law, and economics to interpret taxpayers’ behavior toward tax legislation and to analyze the diverse motives underlying compliance.
This study examines the principal factors influencing the shaping of taxpayer behavior, which are categorized as ideological, cultural and social, as well as legal and administrative. However, the Iraqi legislature’s reliance on a materialistic conception of the taxpayer, detached from psychological motivations, has negatively affected voluntary compliance rates. Accordingly, it is essential to focus on the subjective dimension of tax behavior by involving psychological experts in the formulation of tax legislation and by linking taxation to tangible public services that foster a culture of compliance, transforming it into an automatic societal practice. Such an approach seeks to achieve a balanced equilibrium between the authority of the law and the taxpayer’s conviction.

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

The Yemeni crisis is the culmination of long-standing historical accumulations and flawed policies that predated 2011, as political stagnation coupled with deteriorating socio-economic conditions paved the way for the eventual eruption of conflict. Foreign intervention transcended its role as a secondary factor to become the primary driver, transforming the country into a proxy war theater between regional powers—most notably Iran and its Houthi allies on one side, and Saudi Arabia and the UAE supporting the legitimate government on the other. The repercussions of these conflicts have extended beyond Yemen's borders, threatening international maritime security and facilitating the rise of terrorist organizations amidst the central government's inability to maintain control. Consequently, Yemen’s strategic location and its oversight of vital waterways have turned the crisis into a focal point for regional and international power struggles, where external agendas have superseded the aspirations of the Yemeni people, rendering the nation a pivotal arena for political and military polarization.

Although many legislations in countries that have adopted the electronic commercial agent system have affirmed the validity of contracts through electronic means and agents, many of these legislations have not explicitly defined the legal nature of the electronic agent. There have been numerous jurisprudential and legal attempts to define the legal nature of the electronic commercial agent. Granting the electronic agent legal personality is a legal benefit, as it allows them to bear responsibility for errors that occur during the performance of the required work. Jurists have presented numerous arguments for granting the electronic commercial agent legal personality, including that they enjoy independence and freedom of action, which brings them closer to the actions of a natural person, and that they bear legal obligations and consequences legal .
It is linked the application of the terms of the electronic contract. However, these remain mere arguments without practical application. When we look at the comparative countries, we find that they have not recognized the legal personality of the electronic commercial agent, but rather considered them merely a communication tool in the hands of the programmer or designer.

Self-driving vehicles are among the most prominent applications of technological advancement in transportation. They rely on intelligent systems and advanced software that enable them to navigate and make decisions without direct human intervention. This development has raised significant legal issues, particularly concerning the determination of civil liability for damages arising from accidents involving these vehicles. The traditional system of civil liability, based on personal fault, faces difficulties in application when the harmful act results from a technical malfunction or an automated decision made by an intelligent system, thus limiting the possibility of attributing fault to the driver or user.
Civil liability for damages caused by self-driving vehicles revolves around finding the appropriate legal basis for compensation, whether based on fault-based liability, liability for being in charge of a thing, liability for dangerous acts, or even adopting modern theories based on strict liability and strict liability. The question also arises as to who is responsible for the damage: the vehicle owner, the user, the manufacturer, or the software developer, especially given the multiple parties involved in the design and operation of these vehicles. In the absence of specific legislation in many countries, including Iraq, the general rules of civil law remain the governing framework for civil liability for these damages, despite their shortcomings in addressing the complex technical nature of autonomous vehicles. This necessitates legislative intervention to establish specific legal regulations that strike a balance between encouraging technological innovation and ensuring the protection of those harmed through the provision of fair and effective compensation.

Accurate news of crimes results in investigative procedures and the collection of effective evidence, Corruption offences are of a special nature as a result of the characteristics of perpetrators of this type of crime, is often assigned to a public service or employee and has social standing and scientific expertise, The informant is often an employee of government institutions, He may refrain from news because he does not wish to appear before the investigator or judge to make statements to avoid reprisals by the perpetrators or the informant's lack of awareness of the importance of formal proceedings in documenting evidence, erefore the need to simplify the formality of the procedures for receiving information appeared in anonymous news images in a modern method of confidential news that did not include a reference to the source of the complaint, It is approved by the investigating authorities after being accompanied by fundamentalist investigation procedures that support its validity, Practical application has proven the effectiveness of anonymous news in detecting important corruption files.
With the development of the media, the importance of the preventive and investigative role of the media has emerged, For your persuasion requirements and impact on people's attitudes and behaviour, However, the role of the media in drawing the attention of stakeholders and the public to the evidence of corruption offences must be regulated by legislation, Investing public opinion in supporting anti-corruption efforts, preventing the dissemination of incorrect allegations of corruption for the purpose of defamation, and granting sufficient legal powers to enable field monitoring teams to perform their functions.

After 2003, Iraqi diplomacy was affected by state weakness and fluctuations in internal politics, which led to deficiencies in foreign performance and disparities in effectiveness among successive governments. It shifted from isolation and dependency to attempts to achieve balance and establish regional and international partnerships, influenced by internal political alliances and rivalries, as well as external interventions, particularly from Iran and the United States. These transformations reflect the urgent need to activate diplomatic efforts and adopt effective and swift methods to address internal and external challenges and to achieve Iraq’s national interests

The contemporary international environment is witnessing fundamental transformations in the nature of conflicts, as conventional wars alone no longer represent the main threat to national security, but rather unconventional wars have emerged as hidden and effective tools in weakening countries and undermining their stability. Psychological warfare is one of the most prominent of these tools, as it targets the collective conscience of peoples and the strategic minds of decision-makers, by spreading rumors, misleading the media, and sowing internal divisions, making it a war no less dangerous than direct military confrontations Psychological warfare has thus become an integral part of modern military operations, as it affects the essence of national security. Understanding its mechanisms and effects is crucial to understanding contemporary conflicts and the strategies used by state and non-state actors. With the escalation of information warfare in the digital age, states must deal with the repercussions of propaganda, disinformation, and psychological operations on local and international stability. Therefore, this research aimed to analyze national security policies in the face of psychological warfare By studying the concept of unconventional warfare and its characteristics, clarifying the mechanisms and tools of psychological warfare, and then reviewing possible national strategies to confront its dangers, relying on a set of scientific research methods, to reach the results of the study and achieve its desired goals.

The energy variable plays a pivotal role in China's foreign policy towards West African countries, focusing on Sierra Leone and Nigeria as the two main models within this study, since the beginning of the new millennium, Energy has become one of the vital factors shaping China's relations with African countries, as Beijing seeks to secure the energy sources necessary to support its accelerated economic growth, through the economic and diplomatic strategy followed by China, it has strengthened its presence in West Africa, taking advantage of oil reserves and other natural resources, in the case of Nigeria, it is the largest oil producer in Africa, as China has adopted an active investment policy, resulting in the signing of several Economic and trade agreements, in addition to increasing cooperation in the areas of infrastructure and development, as for Sierra Leone, China has also been active in the exploitation of natural resources, including minerals. Chinese investments have contributed to the strengthening of bilateral relations, giving China greater influence in the region. However, the research points to the challenges that China faces, such as fears of exploitation and environmental and social impacts.

As long as the world is witnessing great digital progress, it is certain that this must be met with caution against electronic anger, which has become widespread in the judiciary. Electronic usurpation we find today has increased more than it was previously. The greater the progress in technology, the more the crime of usurpation increases. Therefore, we found in our research that electronic usurpation may affect the natural and legal person without distinction, and the problem may increase if the legal person has privacy that represents the rights of an entire state, an example of which is public ministries whose computers contain Secrets that cannot be revealed to those authorized to know, in addition to that, a natural person may be exposed and he may utter obscene expressions about friends and bargaining. To earn money, the Iraqi civil legislator has regulated the rules of civil liability and made compensation an effect resulting from this liability

The issue of strategic balance in the Eastern Mediterranean region has gained great importance as a result of the nature of the prevailing view on the Eastern Mediterranean region, as a region of vital importance to the countries of the region and beyond, in addition to the fact that the region has been exposed to many tensions and conflicts between its parties, which has put... The region faces many complex challenges, the most important of which is creating a balanced environment in economic, political and security aspects throughout the region and beyond.

This study examines the forms of placing the debtor in default (notice of default) and the cases in which such notice is legally or practically exempted, within the framework of Iraqi civil law and in comparison with Egyptian and French laws. It highlights the diversity of default mechanisms, including written, oral, electronic, and contractual notices, and their legal effects on termination and compensation. The research also analyzes statutory, natural, and agreed-upon exceptions to default notice requirements

In light of the rapid technological advancement and the widespread use of modern communication means, the issue of information and privacy protection has become one of the most prominent challenges facing contemporary societies, This challenge grows even more complex as reliance on technology increases in various aspects of daily life, making it necessary to raise legal and social awareness regarding the importance of protecting privacy and personal information, Among the issues that have notably emerged in this context is the violation of exam question privacy, This matter holds great significance in both the educational and legal systems due to its direct impact on the integrity of the educational process and society's trust in educational institutions, The violation of exam question privacy is not merely a breach of the educational process, but also constitutes a legal offense with complex dimensions that require comprehensive treatment from both legal and educational perspectives.

This research examines the impact of the philosophy of the penal system on the rights of female prisoners by explaining the meaning of female prisoners and the nature of the philosophy of the penal system within Iraq by explaining the foundations of this system with regard to penal institutions or the rights that female prisoners should enjoy. This research also addresses the philosophy of the international penal system in terms of the rules that make up this system and the penal principles that these rules contain, whether those that concern prisoners in general and apply to female prisoners, as well as the rules that are specific to women and not other categories of prisoners, leading up to the problems suffered by female prisoners within penal institutions in Iraq, which reveals the extent to which the penal system for female prisoners in Iraq is compatible with the rules that regulate their rights at the international level.

Contemporary climate policies have undergone a profound legal transformation, as they are no longer regarded merely as discretionary political choices or governmental programs, but have increasingly become subject to constitutional judicial review. This shift is largely driven by the escalating risks posed by climate change to fundamental human rights, foremost among them the right to life. It reflects the emergence of a rights-based approach to climate litigation, which seeks to reframe environmental disputes within the broader framework of human rights, thereby enabling courts to intervene in defining the limits of administrative discretion in the formulation and implementation of climate policies.
This study aims to analyze the role of constitutional judicial review in protecting fundamental rights in the face of state inaction or insufficiency in addressing climate change. It does so through a comparative examination of leading judicial decisions, particularly the Urgenda case in the Netherlands, the Neubauer case in Germany, and the Leghari case in Pakistan. These landmark rulings demonstrate a significant shift from viewing environmental protection as a general public interest to recognizing it as a necessary condition for the effective enjoyment of constitutional rights, especially the right to life, bodily integrity, and private and family life.
The study further explores the legal foundations relied upon by courts to impose positive obligations on states, including the duty of care, the precautionary principle, and obligations derived from human rights law. It also examines the limits of such judicial intervention and its compatibility with the principle of separation of powers. The study concludes that constitutional courts have assumed a pivotal role in shaping climate policies by enforcing a minimum standard of rights protection that states cannot fall below, thereby reflecting a fundamental evolution in the concept of constitutional legality in the environmental field.

The legal nature of this issue lies in the description applied to indecent digital content, which is defined as: an obscene act that violates public decency or morals and is published and circulated via digital space. Indecent digital content is classified as a misdemeanor under Article (403) of the Iraqi Penal Code No. (111) of 1969, as amended Which punishes the making or distribution of indecent images or films with imprisonment for a period not exceeding two years and a fine, in addition to the necessity of compensating the person harmed by this act for the damages he suffered as a result of this content, considering that this content represents a harmful act