AL-Sharaa journal for legal and administrative studies

Immediate first aid has evolved over time and has become one of the basic services provided to patients and the injured in all countries of the world, due to its utmost importance in saving the injured and the sick who are exposed to emergency injuries as a result of traffic accidents and other accidents that lead to serious injuries that may lead to death. The importance of the paramedic in saving people's lives in these critical circumstances is highlighted.
Here, it is necessary to clarify the civil liability of the paramedic staff in the immediate ambulance, which is of utmost importance due to its importance in saving the lives of the injured and the sick. Some paramedics may make mistakes during or because of their job, which have harmful and bad effects on the patients and the injured. Therefore, medical care must be provided to them. It is necessary to emphasize the responsibility of paramedics for their mistakes during or because of practicing the profession. Therefore, a balance must be achieved between considerations of protecting the injured and the sick and not restricting the paramedic staff in practicing their humanitarian work and identifying the obligation that results from the work of paramedics. Is it limited to providing the necessary care to transport patients or achieving a result? Also, clarifying the responsibility for damages resulting from the use of medical devices in the immediate ambulance and who is responsible for these damages? Is the paramedic staff alone or the entity to which it belongs, or is the responsibility jointly?
Finally, determining the issue of ambulance management and its relationship with the staff while performing their duty and the basis of responsibility and whether it can be adapted on the basis of contractual or tortious liability?
In the first section of this research, we will discuss the responsibility of the paramedic staff in the ambulance, and in the second section, we will discuss the responsibility of paramedics for medical machines and devices.

The defect of consent is not limited to the moment in time when the offer issued by one of the contracting parties is coupled with the acceptance of the other. Consent may be defective after the conclusion of the contract and for reasons unrelated to the defects of consent accompanying the conclusion of the contract known within the framework of civil laws. These defects have received the attention of Islamic jurisprudence, and Iraqi law and some comparative laws have provided legislative applications from which it is inferred that there is a nucleus for taking these defects into account. The research came to clarify these defects and their provisions within the framework of Islamic jurisprudence and law and in order to extrapolate general texts from those special applications in order to propose a legislative regulation for these defects within the framework of the legal texts regulating the implementation of the contract in Iraqi Civil Law No. 40 of 1951.

Economic crimes that cross borders have recently increased, especially among the Arab Spring countries, such as money laundering, tax evasion, terrorist financing, and international corruption, which has negatively affected global economic and social stability. These crimes require intensive international cooperation to combat them, as criminals resort to using a complex network of international financial systems and modern technologies to bypass legal borders. International organizations play a major role in coordinating international efforts to combat these illegal activities by developing international agreements that contribute to establishing a unified legal framework to combat transnational economic crimes. However, they face many challenges in combating these crimes. The most prominent of these challenges is the lack of effective coordination between countries due to the difference in legal systems and legislation, and the difference in political and economic priorities. There are also significant differences in technical capabilities between developed and developing countries, which hinders effective coordination efforts to combat economic crimes. These crimes use modern technologies such as digital currencies, which are difficult to track and investigate, adding a new dimension of complexity to legal and criminal issues. These challenges are exacerbated by the political and economic pressures that some, which may affect their ability to implement the necessary measures. Hence, the role of international organizations in combating cross-border economic crimes is the fundamental pillar in maintaining the stability of the global economy and international security.

The principle of the common heritage of humanity is one of the newly emerging principles in international public law, especially after developing countries gained their independence, in addition to the scientific and technical developments that occurred in areas outside the borders of the territorial jurisdiction, which enjoy large quantities of minerals and wealth. Therefore, the demands of the Third World countries came to have a share in the exploitation and discovery of these areas, which were the subject of the ambitions of developed countries, and this is under a legal principle that allows all countries to benefit, participate and contribute to the exploitation of these areas and place them under a system that meets the demands of all countries, such as the principle of Common heritage of humanity.

Digital life has become an integral part of individuals’ daily lives; therefore, individuals’ electronic privacy must be under legal protection. There is a huge amount of personal information in individuals’ electronic on the social media networking sites, which is often vulnerable to hacking causes harms and damages to individuals, whether the source of this hacking is a national or foreign source. Therefore, legal protection for this right must be founded.
The violation of the right to electronic privacy refers to “any violation of a person’s private life or his privacy, which is represented by the sanctity of his home, his name, his personal photo, his calls and all personal elements of various types, whether electronic or regular”. The violation of the right to privacy by a foreign person may be a contractual violation, which means that access to a person’s private data was through a breach of the contract between the two parties, or this violation may be happen through a negligent violation, which is the most common "based on the principle of tort". In all previous cases, this violence in both its forms of civil liability "contractual or tort" reflected in the scope of compensation in contractual liability, which extends to moral damage.
The formality of a foreign contract is subject to the law of the country in which it was concluded. However, if the contract is concluded electronically via the Internet, the contract is considered concluded once the acceptance reaches the obligor. Therefore, the formality is subject to the law of that country. As for the contract substantive aspect, it is subject to the express will, implied, common domicile of the two parties and place of conclusion. on the other hand, for tort which mixed with foreign element, its subject to the law of the country in which the act creating the obligation was committed.

Constitutional periods are defined as: the period of time specified in the constitutional document that requires the state authorities to take certain measures during that period. They are the ideas related to the idea of time before the public authorities in the state.
Constitutional terms are of great importance in all constitutional systems, as they determine the work of the authorities in the state according to what is stipulated in the constitutional document، they have a specific time for their start and end and must be adhered to by all، rulers and ruled.
Both the constitutions in Egypt and Iraq set a specific constitutional period for the terms of the President of the Republic and the Prime Minister، and it is not permissible to violate these periods because violating them constitutes a flagrant violation of the Constitution.

In light of the rapid technological transformations witnessed by the contemporary world, particularly in the field of artificial intelligence, it has become essential to reconsider the concept of civil liability for damages arising from this modern technology. Artificial intelligence, with its vast capabilities and potential, has become crucial in various aspects of life, whether economic, social, or legal.
With its widespread use, significant legal issues arise regarding who should bear responsibility for damages caused by the actions or decisions of intelligent systems, especially in the absence of clear legal provisions addressing this matter, particularly in the Iraqi legal system, which has yet to keep pace with this rapidly advancing technology. This research aims to address these legal issues by attempting to determine the civil liability that may arise from the use of artificial intelligence. This requires exploring the compatibility of general rules of tort liability with the nature of artificial intelligence, which operates without direct human intervention. The research also compares different legal systems, especially European models that have begun to establish legal frameworks concerning liability for damages caused by artificial intelligence. These models may provide legal guidance for Iraqi legislators to develop laws that align with modern technological advancements, ensuring justice and protecting individual rights against the potential risks posed by artificial intelligence.

The aim of this research is to explore and analyze the legal framework governing the contract for treatment with medical prostheses, while highlighting the rights and obligations of the contracting parties and the legal liability arising from the use of these prostheses. The research seeks to determine the legal framework and medical standards that should govern this type of contract and to propose legislative solutions that contribute to bridging existing legal gaps. This will ensure the protection of patients' rights and the promotion of safe medical practices amid the rapid advancement of medical technology and its increased utilization. The research has reached several conclusions, the most important of which include establishing precise regulatory provisions that guarantee quality and safety in the use of medical prostheses, obliging doctors and medical institutions to provide patients with clear and comprehensive information regarding treatment options and the associated risks, as well as implementing mechanisms for quality monitoring and ensuring the safety of medical prostheses in line with global medical standards. The research recommended the enactment of specialized legislation regulating contracts for treatment with medical prostheses, which would accurately define responsibilities, establish controls for the use of these prostheses, and enhance the role of medical insurance to provide legal and financial protection for both doctors and patients in the event of unforeseen complications.

This research addresses the challenges facing the application of international humanitarian law in armed conflicts, focusing on the role of protecting states and the International Committee of the Red Cross in safeguarding the rights of prisoners. The study reviews human rights violations, such as those experienced by Iraqi prisoners during the American war, and reveals the shortcomings of the protecting state system in its actual implementation. It also emphasizes the importance of enhancing international cooperation and implementing preventive measures, such as integrating international humanitarian law into national legislation and training armed forces, to ensure effective protection of the rights of prisoners and civilians.

The issue of trade union rights is of great importance at the international and national levels، as
the freedom to establish trade unions and belong to a trade union are fundamental rights.
stipulated in international documents and confirmed by national laws and legislation
The union right is also considered one of the rights recognized at the international level، and this right is considered an individual right of workers that is exercised collectively within the framework of a union organization that aims to defend the common interests of the workers، whether these workers are active in one profession or several similar professions. The right to
trade union also means the right of every citizen who meets the legal conditions to establish a trade union. They also have the right to join and refrain from joining it، since the trade union right exists and is recognized internationally and nationally، and thus it is imposed on it to be protected
and the enactment of laws and legislation reinforces the protection granted to the trade union right with full legal guarantees. Mechanisms are devoted to it at the national and international levels، and these mechanisms are an applied process and establish binding rules in the face of the abuse that will occur in the union right.
With an explanation of the adequacy of these guarantees to protect the right، relying on the descriptive and analytical approach، by analyzing the texts of the law related to protecting the exercise of the union right. The research was divided into two sections، the first section included an explanation of the nature of the trade union right، while the second section included the protection of the trade union right. The research also reached a set of results، including that the Iraqi legislator considered the exercise of the union right to be a recognized constitutional right for all citizens in accordance with Article (22\Third) of the Iraqi Constitution of 2005 (The state guarantees the right to establish trade unions and professional federations، or join them، and this is regulated by law. ) Many international charters also affirmed the right to exercise union rights as a human right. In general، the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 is considered the basic international document that clarified what the United Nations Charter emphasized in its texts about the necessity of respecting and protecting human rights in Iraq.

The Iraqi Constitution came with legal and constitutional guarantees for the accused that protect him from the arbitrariness of the executive and judicial authorities. Some of these guarantees formed the general framework of the legal state and this framework is the independence of the judiciary and the rule of law. There are other guarantees that are principles formulated by legal thought over time, such as the principle of no crime and no punishment except by a text. The principle of the accused being innocent until proven guilty, the personal nature of punishment, the lack of retroactive application of the criminal law, the publicity of court sessions, and other principles, are among the principles whose goal was to achieve the spirit of justice and law.

There is no doubt that water is an indispensable element for humans and living organisms, and groundwater has great importance and influence on the ecosystem, and its importance is constantly increasing due to the high demand for it in all areas of life, especially when it is absent or scarce in some areas. So humans resort to digging wells to meet their essential needs, and some violations may be committed during the digging of these wells. Therefore, this study aims to clarify the legal mechanisms guaranteed by the legislator to serve groundwater and protect it from depletion and pollution

The legislator's adoption of international double taxation taxes, whether he is unaware of it, or has entrusted it as a tool to intervene in economic, social, or financial life, leads permanently to multiple negative effects represented in exhausting taxpayers and burdening them with their tax burdens, which in turn makes them refrain from investing, and thus reduces production and trade exchange, which clearly leads to obstructing the transfer of capital and labor, and harming the state's economy. Therefore, the taxpayer works to use legitimate means represented by the taxpayer's abstention from carrying out the incident that created the tax in the first place, and illegitimate means to get rid of paying the tax represented by tax evasion because it is the first thought that comes to the mind of the taxpayer as a means of getting rid of paying the tax imposed on him, or other means to return what has been paid to the state, and international double taxation usually results in results that affect the level of achieving justice between individuals on the one hand, and also affects the national economy on the other hand.

This research aims to address the role of the International Criminal Court in prosecuting perpetrators of crimes against humanity. The research problem crystallized in answering the following question: "To what extent does the International Criminal Court have an impact and effectiveness in deterring and limiting crimes against humanity?" The research reached several conclusions, the most important of which is that the International Criminal Court came after many endeavors and efforts that have grown throughout history, and was not the product of the Rome Statute for its establishment within the framework of the United Nations or outside it. This was a reflection of the growing awareness and understanding of the seriousness of keeping acts committed in times of armed conflicts without prosecuting and criminalizing their perpetrators. The steps and stages of prosecuting violations against humanity are affected by the interventions of the UN Security Council in the work of the permanent International Criminal Court, which raises doubts about the integrity and impartiality of the court in this context.

The U.S. policy towards the Zionist presence in the Middle East is one of the most complex and impactful topics at both the regional and international levels. This policy has been characterized by consistent orientations over the decades, with the United States remaining a key supporter of Israel. This support is reflected in multiple areas, including military, political, and economic spheres. In this context, an important question arises regarding the determinants and objectives of this policy, especially in light of the rapid developments in the region and the ongoing conflicts.
U.S. support for Israel goes beyond being a strategic choice; it stems from a combination of historical, ideological, and geopolitical factors. The interests of the United States in the Middle East intersect with Israel's goals of enhancing its security and stability. By understanding these determinants and objectives, we can comprehend the mutual interactions between U.S. policy and Israel on one hand, and the Arab states and Palestinians on the other.

The legal nature of the civil judge’s authority in assessing and invoking contractual necessity is based on the principle of flexibility in legal rules, which grants the judge wide discretionary powers to determine whether there is a necessity that justifies altering or amending the terms of the contract. In this context, the judge’s role is not limited to the strict application of legal texts; rather, it extends to evaluating the facts and circumstances surrounding the case. Therefore, the judge assesses whether the circumstances have undergone significant changes that make the performance of the contract as originally agreed impossible or unfair.
The discretionary authority of the judge lies in assessing the impact of these circumstances on the obligations of the parties and determining whether it is necessary for the judge to intervene and modify the terms of the contract in order to achieve justice and balance the rights of the parties. Thus, the judge has the authority to invoke this contractual necessity based on a precise understanding of the facts and evidence presented, without being restricted solely to rigid legal texts.

This research examines the financial obligations of shareholders in joint-stock companies, analyzing the nature of these obligations and the legal provisions governing them in both the Iraqi and Lebanese legal systems. The study focuses on the shareholder's duty to contribute the financial share they commit to the company, whether in cash or in kind, and addresses their financial responsibilities in the event of a breach of these obligations.
The research differentiates between cash shareholders and in-kind shareholders, explaining how the in-kind shareholder must guarantee the actual value of their in-kind contribution against defects that may affect its value or usability. It also discusses the conditions under which the obligation to guarantee both the ownership and defects of the contribution arises. The financial impact of these obligations in the case of an in-kind contribution being annulled due to defects is also examined, potentially leading to the cancellation of the contribution or the reduction of the shareholder's rights in the company.
Furthermore, the study addresses how cases of shareholder failure to fulfill their financial obligations are dealt with and highlights their impact on the company's stability. Finally, the research discusses the various legislations related to handling issues surrounding unfulfilled financial contributions, and explains the legal penalties shareholders may face in case of breach, such as contract rescission or adjustment of subscription rights

The presence of a defect in the sold item prevents the buyer from benefiting from it; therefore, the seller guarantees the buyer that the item is free from defects. The Iraqi legislator has regulated the provisions of liability for construction defects in the Iraqi Civil Code and has established general rules in this regard. However, concerning the liability for apparent defects in off-plan property sales contracts, despite its importance, the Iraqi legislator has not regulated it under specific rules but has subjected it to general principles, which is a legislative gap that must be addressed. In contrast, the French legislator has established specific rules for contracts of sale of buildings under construction and has set special provisions for both apparent and hidden construction defects. Apparent defects are defined as those that the buyer knows at the time of sale or could have known had they examined the item at the time of the contract with the diligence of an ordinary person. These defects are subject, in Iraqi law, to the general principles of the Civil Code, while in French law, they are subject to specific rules that we will explain in the course of our research.

The international community has realized the importance of ensuring the use of nuclear energy in a safe, sound and orderly manner while ensuring nuclear and environmental safety and continuing to work to raise the level of nuclear safety worldwide through international cooperation at the national, regional and global levels in promoting a culture of security and nuclear safety as well as the commitment of states to bear the international responsibility incurred when accidents occur in their nuclear facilities, which usually cross international borders.
On this basis, the United Nations, the International Atomic Energy Agency and the countries of the world had exceptional efforts through conferences, scientific committees, global and regional international agreements and national legislation to ensure the prohibition of the proliferation of nuclear weapons and limiting their use for peaceful purposes.

The legal framework for labor rights in occupational health and safety aims to provide a safe and healthy work environment for workers and protect them from hazards that may affect their health and safety during work. This framework includes a set of laws، regulations, and systems that define the rights of workers, the responsibilities of employers, and the roles of relevant government entities.
The main elements of this framework include:
• Workers' Rights: These rights encompass the right to a safe and healthy work environment, the right to receive adequate information about occupational hazards, the right to safety training, the right to report violations without fear of retaliation, and the right to compensation for occupational injuries and illnesses.
• Employer Responsibilities: These responsibilities include providing a safe and healthy work environment, assessing occupational risks and taking necessary measures to mitigate them, providing personal protective equipment, conducting safety training for workers, and cooperating with relevant government entities.
• Role of Government Entities: This includes establishing laws and regulations, inspecting workplaces to ensure compliance with the laws, providing technical support and awareness, and investigating occupational accidents and injuries.
The importance of this framework lies in its role in protecting the health and safety of workers by reducing the number of occupational injuries and illnesses, improving workers' quality of life, and increasing productivity since a safe and healthy work environment contributes to higher productivity and better performance. It is also an ethical obligation for employers to provide a safe and healthy work environment and to comply with existing laws and regulations.
However, the challenges faced by this framework include difficulties in fully and effectively implementing laws and regulations in some countries, a lack of awareness regarding the importance of occupational health and safety among workers and employers, and insufficient oversight of law and regulation enforcement.
To enhance this framework, certain measures can be taken, such as developing legislation, increasing awareness and training, and fostering collaboration between relevant parties, including the government, employers, workers, and unions, along with effective oversight to ensure compliance with laws and regulations.

The twenty-first century represents a tremendous scientific revolution at the level of social life, as scientific development, specifically in artificial intelligence technologies, represents a turning point in many areas of industry, and such a development in technology is cars that operate with artificial intelligence, which operate two natures, a dual nature represented by The driver of the vehicle (the natural person) and another person (the technical person), while the second personality of the car is the individual one, (the technical person) only. Therefore, this study will shed light on both personalities, and whether it is possible to give them legal personality, in addition to researching the legal basis for the liability resulting from the damages generated by these vehicles, as we discuss the most prominent theories related to this basis.

Judicial work is not based on knowledge of the law alone, but it is deeper and more comprehensive than that. It is providing a fair solution to a human problem. True justice is what leads to the victory of the right through the law, not the loss of the right in the name of the law. This requires that the right holder obtain his right easily and with little expense based on the ruling issued in his favor. Otherwise, he loses his confidence in the law and the judiciary. Here, the role of expedited enforcement emerges in the possibility of implementing judicial rulings as soon as they are issued. The ruling covered by expedited enforcement is a non-final ruling subject to cassation and may be returned or canceled after an appeal. Therefore, expedited enforcement may involve some risks, which requires balancing the conflicting interests of the opponents. Just as the judgment recipient is protected by expediting the fulfillment of his right through expedited enforcement, the judgment debtor should be protected from any harm that befalls him as a result of expedited enforcement by granting him guarantees that ensure his position is redressed in cases where the cancellation or modification occurs after the appeal. It includes restoring the situation to what it was before implementation or repairing any damages resulting from the implementation as a result of the urgent implementation, so the idea of the guarantee came as one of the guarantees of urgent.

The minutes of the session are the official document through which all procedures that take place during the course of the trial are documented. These minutes are considered an essential means of protecting the rights of the parties, as it accurately documents the proceedings of the session, which makes it a reliable reference for the court and the parties concerned when there is a need to prove facts or challenge some procedures. Through this study, the legal nature of the minutes of the session was determined by reviewing the legal texts and opinions of jurists and analyzing the extent of the validity of the minutes of the session in judicial proof, and indicating the extent of the possibility of challenging it according to the legislation under comparison. At the end, a set of results and recommendations were reached, which are mentioned in the content of the research .

The role of the judge since ancient times, and the laws that appeared in Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley were limited, and with the development of time, the role of the judge developed to what exists in our world and in our current laws, but with the difference between the comparative laws in terms of limitation and expansion, In addition, factors have emerged that have contributed to the development of judicial oversight, including changing the concept of the neutrality of the civil judge from what it was, and finally, scientific and technological development has also led to a significant development in the supervisory role of the judge. Accordingly, the legislator must provide a set of necessary means and capabilities for the judge to enable him, by virtue of his job, to resolve the dispute and issue a fair ruling, One of these means is judicial oversight. In addition, in light of the modern developments that the world is witnessing in terms of communications and emerging technology, it has become necessary to give the judge something greater in terms of authority and competence to confront the challenges resulting from this development.

Protecting and ensuring the rights of persons with disabilities and special needs and building a society that adheres to these rights are among the challenges facing countries. Supporting human rights requires continuous protection and is a moral and legal duty of governments. The state must recognize and protect the rights of this group, in addition to removing obstacles that limit their effective participation in society, and taking all necessary measures to ensure their enjoyment of their rights and alleviate their suffering. Hence, the need to apply positive discrimination as a measure aimed at addressing the negative effects on the rights of persons with disabilities and special needs and enhancing their support in all areas. Accordingly, in this context, we will discuss the definition of persons with disabilities and special needs, then review the mechanisms of positive discrimination to protect their rights.

Submitting a financial and administrative disclosure in Iraq is a legal procedure to limit restrictions and not control anything between others and the public. This procedure includes all persons who are all public, and are completely safe and reach employees in various administrative units and government institutions. Among the legal implications of submitting a disclosure is the fight against administrative corruption. In Iraq, corruption problems have become one of the basic variables in construction. Social, after a series of crises, wars and occupation, which left direct and indirect effects on basic institutions. Corruption issues are considered one of the most serious phenomena that raise concern over the past three decades, due to the continuous increase in corruption indicators at the national and local levels. Iraq has faced challenges as a result of internal and external factors, threatens institutional structures and enhances the risks of social discrimination, which has led to the erosion of the level of social security. Iraq also faced new challenges represented by high levels of financial and administrative corruption. This study will focus on the preventive mechanism adopted by the Licensing Authority to limit the spread of this phenomenon, which is the financial disclosure procedure and the legal and administrative implications of submitting the financial disclosure. The effectiveness of this measure will be evaluated by reviewing the legislation that provides for it in Iraq.

Perhaps the topic of the end of the functional relationship of the public employee seems to be one of the traditional topics in the field of writing research, theses and scientific dissertations that are concerned with studying the public function, but the practical reality says otherwise, as this topic is one of the important, renewed and developing topics with the development and friction of the administration with the practical functional reality of the public employee, and this importance is highlighted by the rank and position that the public employee occupies in the public function and administration on the other hand, perhaps it is also natural for a person to grow old and his performance and strength weaken, and his services and life activities decrease with age, and it is also natural for a person to suffer from a disease or health condition that leads to his inability to perform the tasks assigned to him in the field of public function that the legislator stipulated from the beginning before appointment in the field of public function, the completion of the specified age for appointment and that the applicant for appointment in this field undergo a medical examination, in which the applicant or candidate for public function proves that he is free from all medical conditions that hinder or reduce his performance, as it is an essential condition before the issuance of the appointment order in the public function, and that referral to retirement according to the legal age is One of the natural causes and symptoms of the termination of the functional relationship between the public employee and the administration, and the financial effects represented by the retirement salary are one of the rights resulting from the termination of this relationship, which was legislated and the state is considered the sponsor and guarantor of the establishment of this relationship from the beginning.

Final judicial rulings are considered a source of judicial truth and enjoy immunity from challenge under the law. When a ruling is appealed and is fundamentally flawed due to its lack of legal existence، the court imposes the penalty of lack of action on it. Judicial rulings must meet the conditions for their validity in terms of form and content. Thus، judicial rulings are issued in several forms that differ in nature according to the severity of the defect، and they are either invalid or non-existent. If the defect affecting the judicial ruling renders it invalid، then this invalid ruling remains calculated and is considered to exist unless the court succeeds in invalidating it and achieves the same effects as the final ruling. This is done by passing the legally prescribed appeal procedures until the final rulings become valid. However، if the judicial ruling is also affected by an eye، then its insult is rendered non-existent، that is، non-existent، does not produce legal effects، and has no external appearance، which is its physical form. Therefore، the non-existent ruling cannot achieve any of the effects of the ruling. The correct one

Political opposition is an essential part of the political system, and its existence depends on the nature of that system and the degree of constitutional and political development of the state. It is one of the essential pillars of democratic practice and an important part of the components of the modern state. The opposition has its opinions and aspirations, and it may also present an alternative to the applied political program, through which it outlines the nature of the administration of power and the form of government, and exercises its role for the sake of the public interest. The opposition seeks to expose the political deviations of the majority party and monitor the deviations of the government apparatus supported by the majority party. The importance of the presence of the opposition alongside the government is one of the most important incentives for it to carry out work that is beneficial to society, and the right of the minority to oppose from a democratic perspective is equal to the right of the majority to rule. Therefore, if the opposition does not exist, the government’s activity in carrying out its work is weakened, and it may be overcome by recklessness and arrogance, which may lead to tyranny, and this is not in the interest of the country. Therefore, this research will address the concept of political opposition and its goals, and it also sheds light on the types of opposition in addition to the main pillars upon which political opposition is based

The symptoms and repercussions of the political crisis in Iraq are economic, security, constitutional, government formation, political, financial and administrative corruption. These are secondary crises (dependent variable), which the Iraqi governments dealt with according to the approach of crisis management, or the fabrication of crises, or dealing with the crisis after it occurred, far from adopting the preventative approach. They were also characterized by a lack of seriousness.

This research deals with internationalized armed conflicts, which are characterized by the presence of an external element, which makes their legal classification more complex. The research relied on the descriptive analytical approach to review the concept of these conflicts, as it showed that the overlap of internal and external factors requires special treatment. The research also revealed legal challenges, as international humanitarian law does not provide a clear framework for internationalized conflicts, which makes it difficult to apply laws effectively. The research emphasized the importance of the role of jurists and international agreements in formulating legal rules related to these conflicts, which enhances legal understanding and guides international policies. The results also showed that internationalized armed conflicts lead to serious violations of human rights, which requires urgent action to protect civilians. In light of the results, the research recommends developing clear international legal frameworks related to internationalize armed conflicts to ensure effective protection of civilians. Cooperation between states and international organizations should also be enhanced to address the challenges associated with them, and legal awareness should be increased through training programs and workshops. The international community should also take effective measures to protect affected civilians, in addition to the importance of continuous research to better understand the dynamics of these conflicts. This research contributes to developing effective strategies to deal with internationalized armed conflicts and achieve stability and peace

Mudharabah is a contract between the capital owner(depositor) and the investor to establish a project, with the bank acting as an intermediary between them. The fundamental principle of Mudharabah is freedom from any restrictions that may limit the Mudarib (investor) in his actions,
which he is deserved it under the contract. However, certain conditions may be imposed, such as limitations on time, place, type of goods, or other restrictions set by the capital owner to regulate the Mudarib’s activities.
The Mudharabah contract requires specific conditions to be valid and produce its legal effects. These conditions pertain to three main aspects
Profit – The Investment Capital – The terms related to the invested funds. method of distributing earnings. Work – The investor's role and responsibilities.
The Mudharabah contract imposes obligations on its three
parties: the capital owner, the investor, and the bank. In return for these obligations, it also grants rights to the involved parties, as these rights represent the ultimate purpose of the contract.

The rights of persons with disabilities are a vital issue that receives significant attention at both the international and national levels, highlighting the importance of ensuring equality and justice for this group. However, this issue raises many questions related to how to define "persons with disabilities" and determine their special needs, the role of international agreements in promoting the protection of the rights of this group, and the extent to which countries are committed to implementing these agreements, such as the "United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities." Questions also arise about the role of international governmental and non-governmental organizations in protecting these rights and achieving effective change. In the national context, questions are raised about the effectiveness of Iraqi legislation, such as the "Law on the Care of Persons with Disabilities and Special Needs No. 38 of 2013," and its ability to address the challenges that hinder the implementation of these rights virtually. The issue also raises several questions about the solutions and mechanisms that ensure the activation of these international legislation and agreements and their implementation in Iraq, and ensuring the promotion of the rights of persons with disabilities in all areas

Jurisprudential and legislative interest in cyberwarfare is a highly complex topic. Despite the existence of protective legislation aimed at addressing the dramatic developments related to forms of terrorism and cybercrime, cyberwarfare has become increasingly sophisticated in its use of blackmail and infiltration of the security of states and individuals. Consequently, the use of cyberspace has become fraught with risks, requiring states to enhance their oversight role to protect their security and that of their citizens.
Global institutions and organizations, such as the United Nations, are issuing agreements to ensure confrontation and mitigation of the destructive effects, as are national legislation. This requires institutional cooperation within states to achieve the necessary protection.

Attribution in its purely material form is the relation of a phenomenon to a cause. This corresponds to the cause-effect relationship. In criminal law, it means determining a standard by which the relation of a result described by this law to a specific act is regulated. This is the single attribution in its simplest form. Furthermore, it requires attributing this act to a person charged with the commands of the law and charged with its prohibitions. This is the double attribution. In criminal law, material attribution means adding the result that the law criminalizes to the account of the person addressed by the texts in preparation for holding him accountable for it. The idea of attribution in this sense is a purely objective legal idea, not a personal one, as the availability of attribution of the effect of a criminal activity of the person subject to the provisions of the law means ruling on the availability of the cause-effect link, far from the vocabulary of the ability to comply with orders and intentions. This is based on the statement that attributing the criminal result to the person is either achieved or not. If the attribution is achieved, the result attributed to him is added to his account in order to hold him accountable for it. If the attribution is not available, there is no statement about obligating or committing the person towards this result. The idea of attribution is an idea that does not accept aggravation or mitigation. The idea of attribution in this way differs from the idea of an obstacle, as it is the result of violating the criminal rule. The penalty may be mitigated or aggravated by the availability of one of the reasons stipulated in criminal legislation. While material attribution is a necessary prerequisite for determining the relationship between the person and the legal response, i.e. the relationship between the perpetrator and the entitlement to punishment, attribution is not a sufficient condition for criminal accountability, as a result may be attributed to a person who is not held responsible for it. This is also the case if he does not have the capacity to bear the burden of criminal responsibility, which means the presence of awareness and freedom of choice on the part of the perpetrator. If awareness is absent or freedom of choice is wasted on the part of the perpetrator, criminal accountability is not possible, and consequently, the possibility of imposing punishment is not possible