ISIN Journal

The city of Nina is one of the most important southern cities in Mesopotamia, dating back to different eras. Archaeological evidence may indicate that it was inhabited from the Ubaid era until the Islamic era. The city was excavated by many foreign missions, and for our research, a number of pottery from the Italian mission was selected. The work in the city is described accurately and compared to other sites. Most of what distinguishes the pottery is that it does not have much decoration and is made of pure clay.

The cross served as a significant decorative motif among the ancient peoples of Mesopotamia, predating Christianity in both Eastern and Western regions. Its earliest instances can be traced to the Neolithic period, during which it evolved through various forms and symbolic meanings over time. The motif was present on pottery from the Samarra and Jemdet Nasr periods and appeared as engravings on both flat and cylindrical seals. The cross occupied an essential role in daily life, frequently depicted alongside deities or even acting as a substitute for divine figures. Various styles of the cross emerged, including the standard equal-armed cross, the Maltese cross, characterised by triangular arms converging at the center, and the swastika featuring hooked ends. Artefacts bearing the cross were diverse, spanning flat and cylindrical seals, clay and stone statuettes, ivory items, tablets, steles, murals, and a wide array of amulets. During the Assyrian era, the cross acquired sacred significance in the city of Ashur, where it was extensively engraved on stone tablets and steles. It was also commonly worn by kings as protective amulets during military campaigns and battles.

This study explores the geometric forms found in miniature pottery models, which are significant artistic artefacts from Mesopotamia. These items were crafted from the earliest periods, and their production persisted into subsequent eras. The miniature pottery models commonly exhibit geometric shapes such as squares and rectangles, accurately reflecting real-world objects in both form and construction materials. Many of these beds and chairs served roles in religious and magical ceremonies, functioning as gifts, vows, or offerings to deities. Geometric patterns—including straight and wavy lines—adorn their surfaces, suggesting the use of wood, reeds, or fabric coverings, and possibly symbolising water ripples or agricultural grains.

The city of Lagaba is recognised as a significant commercial hub in the second millennium BC, according to information derived from cuneiform texts originating from the region. As all available texts were unearthed through unauthorised excavations, accurately determining the city's location remains challenging. Consequently, current knowledge regarding Lagaba's geographic position is based exclusively on references within these cuneiform records. Data from these sources suggest that the town was situated north of Babylonia, between the capital city of Babylon and Kutha (Tell Ibrahim), and in close proximity to Kutha.
The earliest documented reference to Lagaba dates back to the reign of King Hammurabi, with its prominence continuing during the rule of King Samsu-iluna. This evidence implies that the city was established during the Old Babylonian period, as there is no indication of its existence prior to this era. Accordingly, any study concerning the etymology of Lagaba should be conducted from an Akkadian linguistic perspective, without recourse to Sumerian sources.
Information gleaned from the cuneiform texts provides valuable insight into the geographical environment surrounding Lagaba. Notably, several clues indicate the city's location along a riverbank. Numerous published documents further allude to active navigation in the area. For instance, text LB 1076 discusses wheat distribution among various individuals, including a sailor and a shipowner (Leemans, 1960, pp. 80–81); text LB 1065 details the rental of two vessels (Leemans, 1960, p. 94); and text LB 1093 records substantial quantities of wheat shipped to Babylon via cargo ship under the supervision of Aṭl-bī-Šamaš, the designated navigation agent (wakil-malaḫi) (Leemans, 1960, p. 84). This evidence demonstrates that wheat was transported from Lagaba to Babylon, confirming the existence of a waterway linking the two cities.

Sadness played a significant role in the life of the Mesopotamian individual, influenced by various challenges that left a lasting impact. To address this emotional state, there was typically a designated figure responsible for conducting rituals associated with sorrow, offering comfort and psychological support. Known as the 'Kalu' or mourner, this individual expressed and represented sadness through diverse methods, including mourning rites and other activities. The mourner's function was particularly notable within religious ceremonies, where he was regarded as one of the temple priests, fulfilling both spiritual and secular responsibilities as documented in cuneiform texts.

This study examines the names of various geographic locations characterised by four-letter accentuated forms, investigating both the etymology and significance of these names. The majority are derived from four-letter verbs, while others originate from the fusion of two words to create a term with distinct structure and meaning. The research encompasses 72 such locations, primarily selected from the Arab world and the Middle East, as well as specific regions in Europe and America.

This research will discuss the study of king Akkadian and his military campaigns on cities, He is one of the most prominent kings in the Akkadian state, upon which we will focus. This is due to the numerous revolts, in eternal conflicts, and political crises witnessed during his reign in Mesopotamia, highlighting the challenges he faced to stabilize the region, We chose to study king rimush not becaes of the scientific studies surrounding him but because his legacy and campaigns have not received much research attention, therefore, this research will shed light on his in eternal campaigns and his efforts to unify the Sumerian cities.

The snake held an essential role in Mesopotamian civilisation, serving as a symbol with various meanings. In cuneiform texts, snakes were referenced as central to interpreting supernatural events and rituals related to divination. Because divination was commonly practised in daily life, the snake became associated with religious and magical beliefs aimed at understanding the intentions of the gods and the effects of cosmic forces on humans. Cuneiform divination texts often focused on phenomena connected with nature, and the snake was one of several symbols used to interpret occurrences. Some records indicate that a snake's appearance in specific contexts was regarded as a sign from the divine, which could be interpreted either as a warning or an indication of positive outcomes. The snake was also linked to ideas such as immortality and renewal, contributing to its presence in divination texts and magical practices.

The economic structure during the Third Dynasty of Ur was shaped by the accumulated experiences of earlier periods in Mesopotamia. The Sumerians determined that a system where the state controlled most means of production was optimal for governing both society and the state, resembling a simplified form of socialism tailored to the context of that era. However, this model did not exclude private ownership; individuals and members of society retained the right to own property. As a result, some merchants, such as Turam.i.li and S.a.a), were able to amass considerable wealth. Their financial success was so substantial that they developed personalised monthly calendars to track their commercial activities.

The term "sailor" has historical roots in various literary and economic sources, often linked to figures from myth and legend. Notably, the qualities of a navigator are embodied in characters such as the Sumerian Ziusudra, the Babylonian Atrakhis and Utnapishtim, and Noah (peace be upon him), who are central to flood narratives. Each figure was responsible for constructing, owning, and piloting their respective vessels. Traditionally, "sailor" specifically referred to those involved in ship and boat construction or operation. In contemporary usage, the term has expanded to include individuals responsible for navigation aboard aircraft, who are also designated as navigators.

The Third Dynasty of Ur (2112–2004 BC) is distinguished by its extensive written records addressing multiple facets of society. This era was governed by influential rulers such as King Shulki and his son, King Amarsin, who reigned between 2095 and 2038 BC. Numerous cuneiform texts from this period provide valuable insight into scientific, religious, and economic practices. In this study, four economic documents dating to the reigns of the kings mentioned above have been examined. These texts detail significant revenues from bronze utensils, property transfers, recorded quantities of barley and wheat, collections of capital tablets, and receipts about commercial metallic materials.

Tanning animal skins is an ancient art that developed in Mesopotamia since 3500 BC and over thousands of years. The Sumerians practiced this art and produced leather goods to meet their daily needs. Our information sources about tanning and leather products come from cuneiform texts written on thousands of clay tablets found in administrative and economic archives discovered in various cities in southern Mesopotamia, which were excavated during the last century. By reading and analyzing these cuneiform texts, archaeologists and scholars in the field of cuneiform have learned many details about tanning and how it was practiced, as well as the wide range of tools and implements made by the Sumerians at that time. Furthermore, studies have shown that these products were used as trade goods in commercial transactions within the Sumerian cities and between them, on one hand, and with surrounding and distant regions, on the other hand. This entire activity gave a strong boost to the SumerianBy employing a large number of artisans and craftsmen, and at the same time, by exchanging these products for raw materials and other highly demanded goods that are not available in the lands of Mesopotamia but can be obtained from foreign lands.

The Semitic nations have several similarities from both linguistic and historical perspectives. These similarities are attributed to shared elements of ancestry, history, and geography. In this research, a comparative analysis was conducted regarding the linguistic and historical derivation of the terms "Arab" and "Hebrew." Linguistically, both terms originate from a common Semitic verb, specifically the triliteral root (‘abarra), which relates to movement, travel, and crossing. Historically, various theories suggest that these terms share common origins connected to traditions of nomadism, migration, and a Semitic racial background.

This study offers an overview of the use of the basket in economic texts dating to the Third Dynasty of Ur in Mesopotamia, examining the primary materials used in its construction and the intended purposes of its manufacture. In cuneiform sources, the basket is referenced by several different names, reflecting its frequent mention throughout various historical periods—particularly in economic documents, where it appears in records of transactions, commercial contracts, purchases, and sales.

During the period of King Naram-Sin's rise to power, some Elamite cities initiated a rebellion amid prevailing instability. After consolidating his authority domestically, Naram-Sin proceeded with a military campaign toward Elam, after which Elam was brought under Akkadian control, and an Akkadian governor was appointed over Susa. The Akkadian king also directed his forces toward Marhashi. Following these events, political relations shifted, resulting in a period of peace that lasted through the remainder of Naram-Sin's reign. This period concluded with the establishment of what is considered the earliest known international treaty with defined clauses, agreed between Naram-Sin (2291-2240 BC), grandson of Sargon of Akkad, and the ruler of Awan (2270-2240 BC) in Elam.

This research investigates the progression of mathematics and computational methods within Mesopotamian civilisation, focusing on the advanced systems utilised by the Sumerians and Babylonians, such as quadratic roots and computational equations. The study indicates that the earliest mathematical records originate from the 3rd millennium BC, when clay tablets were employed to demonstrate calculations. The people of Mesopotamia developed both sexagesimal and decimal systems, which have become foundational to modern mathematics. The paper also examines applications of mathematics in fields like astronomy—where it facilitated the tracking of planetary movements and eclipses—and engineering, highlighting its significance in the design of temples and infrastructure. A significant contribution from Mesopotamian civilisation was the early use of zero in calculations, paving the way for later advancements in numerical systems.

This study focuses on the architectural and engineering analysis of towers in Arab-Islamic architecture. It investigates planning strategies, construction techniques, material usage, and structural detailing through a comprehensive examination of tower components and their functional roles within the overall form. The research begins by analyzing the solid base that supports the substantial mass of the tower, emphasizing the method by which the shaft is erected upon this foundation—especially in cylindrical towers that became prominent in Iraqi architecture. Special attention is paid to the treatment of the four corners of the base that extend beyond the circular plan of the tower. The study further explores how architects addressed the engineering challenges associated with great vertical heights—often ranging from 30 to 50 meters—by employing geometrical strategies that ensure the vertical alignment and structural stability of the tower. This was typically achieved by gradually narrowing the shaft towards the top, thus strengthening the core and resisting wind forces. The design includes openings (niches) that penetrate the tower shaft to admit light and air while diffusing wind pressure that could otherwise threaten the structure’s integrity. In addition, the upper parts of the tower are analyzed for their defensive and functional significance, especially in towers integrated with fortifications, castles, and palaces. These sections often contain recessed platforms (basins), accessed via staircases and vaulted passageways embedded within the fortification walls. These features enabled defenders to move freely and use projectile weapons through horizontal slits (mazaghil) and vertical openings (saqatat), both carefully engineered for maximum protection and functionality. In the case of freestanding towers and roadside minarets, such upper platforms served as watchpoints and signaling stations to guide travelers and trade caravans. The architectural composition of the tower is typically crowned with a dome-shaped summit that functions as a canopy, protecting the internal structure from environmental elements.

This research aims to study the Ghaznavid coins preserved in the treasury of the Kufa Mosque by examining the political, economic, and religious history of this state. It then presents a study of nine Ghaznavid coins, including three dinars and six dirhams, in terms of their date, minting location, inscriptions, and the symbols and religious and political connotations they carry. The study revealed that most of the dirham flans, which bear the minting city and date, are unclear due to erosion of their edges. Additionally, most of the studied coins bear the name of the prince Mahmoud of Ghaznawi, as well as the repetition of certain phrases on most dirhams, such as the word "Yamanani". This study relied on a descriptive methodology supported by documentary images and precise readings.

This study outlines the principal types of manuscripts found in ancient bookstores, which included public manuscripts intended for general accessibility and placed in public libraries. Manuscripts vary by copying method and format, including originals in the author's handwriting, copies made from them, and those in the handwriting of scholars. Other categories include Islamic, interim, unique, rare, historical, absolute, collected, pretender, ambiguous, and illustrated manuscripts such as Al-Mawqif and Al-Hajin. Private manuscripts, like Al-Khazani, were intended as gifts for caliphs, sultans, or prominent individuals to be preserved in private collections. These were available only to the recipient, distinguished by their decoration, organisation, and an inscription indicating the manuscript's treasury.

Islamic coins are considered essential for understanding various aspects of civilisations, and researchers use them for matters such as identifying minting cities, the years mentioned, coin styles, and the inscriptions detailing titles and names. Hillah served as a centre for the minting of Islamic coins, witnessing the production of gold dinars, silver dirhams, and copper fils that provide insight into the artistic, political, and economic conditions of the city, as well as details related to the sultans of that period. Coins issued bearing the name of Sultan Muhammad Khuda Banda were minted in Hillah in different styles and years; three dirhams and one fils have been recorded, with one located in the Ethnographic Museum and others documented on websites dedicated to coins.

This research examines the practice of binding Qur’ans using lacquered cardboard, aimed at protecting the book from damage and maintaining its external appearance in accordance with its significance. Binding was considered a function of the bookbinder in Islamic manuscript production and complemented the roles of calligraphers and painters, placing responsibility for page preservation with the bookbinder. Initially, binding methods were simple but evolved, becoming an art form with established scientific and practical principles. The development advanced notably with the discovery of lacquer (varnish) between the 9th and 15th centuries, which was applied to various artistic objects and contributed to their decorative quality. The use of lacquered paper in binding expanded over successive periods, eventually becoming recognised as an independent art. The distribution of these products increased due to their affordability and ease of manufacture, which aligned with economic factors and market demands.

Castles have historically served as critical military defences. This research examines the reasons and factors behind the development of castles, noting that historical and military events in Iraq have influenced the evolution of military architecture. Local governments and other authorities have contributed to the construction and proliferation of castles, particularly in the city of Al-Samawah. The city's geographical position—as a junction between the sedimentary plain and the desert, as well as between the southern and central regions of the country—along with the presence of major roads and proximity to countries such as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, has made it a site of significant historical activity. Many castles in this region were established during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, around the end of Ottoman rule.

The research addresses the topic of Husseini rituals, aiming to clarify the nature of these practices held to commemorate the martyrdom of Imam Hussein. The study examines the rituals from both linguistic and historical perspectives and discusses their association with Ahl al-Bayt and the encouragement for their observance. Over time, these practices have become religious characteristics identified with the months of Muharram and Safar. The study explores various rituals performed during Ashura, including the Arbaeen visit and commemorative acts. It further explains rituals such as chest-beating and striking one's head with a sword. Additionally, it reviews the instruments used in Husseini rituals, such as torches, drums, flags, Tuwairij running, and communal cooking. The research selects examples of these tools, analyzing each linguistically, historically, and technically, and details their functions within Husseini processions.

Material remains serve as important sources for studying human civilisations by providing documentation of events and supporting historical narratives. In the context of Islamic history, various sites and artefacts are associated with significant events and figures, making their examination relevant for understanding historical developments through both written records and physical evidence that has persisted over time.
This research examines the relationship between Islamic historical accounts and material remains, evaluating the level of agreement between textual sources and archaeological findings. It also considers the role of material evidence in recording aspects of Islamic history and explores how Muslims have engaged with their material heritage across different periods. Additionally, the study investigates how these artefacts contribute to the construction of collective memory and influence the interpretation of historical events from a material standpoint.

This study examines the metal tools used for perfuming during the Islamic eras and their development. It delves into the early beginnings of humanity's discovery and innovation of aromatic materials in the civilization of Mesopotamia prior to Islam and the subsequent Islamic contributions that facilitated the spread, diversification, and advanced innovations in extracting these materials. The study highlights the significant role of Islam in the flourishing and advancement of this aspect of Muslim life, as it is closely tied to the principles of purification and spirituality emphasized by Islamic teachings. These teachings carry profound social implications, reflecting the values and sophistication of Islamic society, encouraging individuals to present themselves in the finest and most elegant manner during religious and social occasions or in daily life. Additionally, the study explores the role of the Muslim artisan in showcasing his craftsmanship through the production of these tools, transforming them into exquisite artifacts that reflect artistic mastery and refined taste.

The earliest inhabitants of Iraq were foundational contributors to the development of civilisation. Significant early human civilisations emerged in this region, distinguished by advancements in written language, art, legislation, literature, and comprehensive social, political, and economic systems.
Consequently, the conservation of architectural heritage is essential, serving as both historical documentation and acknowledgement of the remarkable accomplishments of previous generations in establishing a distinctive urban environment.
Architectural heritage provides a vital connection between a nation's past and present. Any contribution within this field, regardless of scope, serves to commemorate this legacy for future generations, reflecting the craftsmanship and artistry of those involved—including builders, carpenters, decorators, and other artisans. These efforts not only highlight the architectural and artistic styles characteristic of specific eras but also ensure their continued appreciation.
Key elements of schematic and architectural layouts include various types of entrances and doors, shanasheel overlooking alleys and streets, the central nave, adjoining building facilities, rooms, the iwan, arse, balcony, kaftan, basement and its subdivisions, ceiling structures, stairs, and bathrooms.

Iraq contains several heritage schools from the previous century, including Al-Jarir School, which is recognised as an essential institution in the city of Rumaitha. Constructed in 1958, its layout and architecture have been studied and documented to reflect the typical design features of that era. Climatic conditions influenced its architectural choices, while the lack of restoration and periods of abandonment have contributed to the decline of its sizable walls. The school's large size and central location distinguish it from older local schools, and it also accommodates a significant number of secondary-level students. The structure includes stonework, large halls, and a spacious courtyard. Common building materials such as concrete, cement, brick, and iron ties were used in its construction. Al-Jarir School is noted as the first secondary school established in Rumaitha.

This study aims to examine and explore the role of international organizations and institutions in protecting classical archaeological sites, with a focus on the challenges these sites face and the significance of international efforts in their preservation. Classical archaeological sites—Greek and Roman—constitute a fundamental part of the world's cultural heritage, serving as living testaments to civilizational progress and human creativity in architecture and the arts. These sites face multiple threats, including natural factors such as climate change and human-induced factors such as armed conflicts and unregulated urban development, necessitating urgent, organized, and sustainable intervention.
Using both quantitative and qualitative analysis, the study evaluates the roles of organizations such as UNESCO, the European Union, ICCROM, and ICOMOS, highlighting their activities in inscribing sites on the World Heritage List, providing financial and technical support, and developing restoration and documentation projects. It also sheds light on the challenges hindering these organizations’ work, including funding shortages, security difficulties in conflict zones, and environmental and legal obstacles.
The study concludes that while international efforts are crucial, they require reinforcement through increased funding, enhanced cooperation between local and international stakeholders, and the adoption of advanced technologies for documentation and protection. Additionally, it recommends raising public awareness of the importance of these sites and incorporating them into educational curricula to ensure the sustainability of their preservation for future generations.

This study outlines a portion of the archaeological survey conducted at Tell Abu Al-Zaar, describing the buildings and surface finds recorded by the researcher. The identified materials from the survey include pottery fragments such as craters, bodies, bases, covers, and melts. Additionally, two types of stones were found—basalt and flint. All these findings are dated to the Sassanian era. For organisational purposes, the site was divided into twenty areas at the start of the research.

Tangible cultural heritage serves as a fundamental pillar for safeguarding the historical identity of societies, with monuments providing enduring records of human history and civilisational progress. These structures, however, face increasing risks from environmental, temporal, and anthropogenic factors, necessitating restoration approaches that both preserve their authenticity and extend their longevity. The pursuit of sustainability in monument restoration is a contemporary concern, focusing on striking a balance between the conservation of cultural and artistic values and the integration of advanced technologies that enhance monument protection.
The incorporation of traditional methods—such as employing local materials and historical construction techniques—alongside cutting-edge innovations like 3D printing and artificial intelligence, is essential to achieving genuine sustainability in restoration practices. This approach aims to minimise environmental impact while maintaining the cultural and economic integrity of heritage sites, consistent with the principles outlined in the 1964 Venice Charter and other international standards for preserving authenticity.
Within this framework, the present study examines the multifaceted dimensions of sustainability in monument restoration—including environmental, cultural, and technical aspects—and explores the complexities of integrating these elements with contemporary technological advancements. Furthermore, it underscores the continued significance of traditional practices in maintaining the cultural authenticity of archaeological sites. Ultimately, this research contributes to the development of hybrid restoration models that respond to present-day challenges, thereby enhancing communities' capacities to safeguard cultural heritage for future generations.

The subject of this research marks a significant turning point in the study of tracking the life of Christians and their presence both before Islam and under its influence. Whether situated in the western regions or Islamic Arab territories, understanding their social conditions is essential. Historical analysis reveals that some Christians stepped away from prominent roles, including certain administrative and political positions, while others established close ties with Arab Caliphs, sometimes through intermarriage—as exemplified by instances where caliphs married Christian women. During these periods, Christians occasionally held positions within the state's administration and served as soldiers in the Islamic Army. Moreover, many contributed professionally as craftsmen, photographers, porcelain makers, metalworkers, and divers. Through a comprehensive study, it has been possible to identify individuals among them who invested significantly in the arts. The presence of Christian symbols and relics serves as a testament to the tolerance and freedom experienced by Christians under Islam, highlighting the profound historical relationship between the communities across various Islamic countries, including Iraq, and notably the city of Mosul. Mosul, recognised as a longstanding Christian homeland, continues to be notable for the artistic contributions made by its community to Iraqi history throughout the Islamic ages.

Dictionaries have played a significant role in human societies since ancient times, serving as tools for preserving language and facilitating communication. They help connect users with linguistic, scientific, and cultural developments, particularly in an era of rapid change. Syriac dictionaries have contributed to maintaining the language, aiding its continued use across various fields by documenting vocabulary. However, these dictionaries have not been extensively studied or analyzed within the context of modern lexical and linguistic developments. It is necessary to examine these dictionaries in light of recent advancements and develop them using rigorous scientific methods and current lexical theories to increase their effectiveness for users. Creating a dictionary involves several key steps, including lexical arrangement, which directly impacts the structure and usability of the dictionary. This arrangement should be among the first technical decisions made, as it influences all subsequent processes. This discussion will define lexical arrangement, outline prominent practitioners, identify types and mechanisms within dictionaries, and analyze these approaches in selected Syriac dictionaries.

This research aims to discuss one of the most important aspects of the Arabs before Islam, namely war or the days of the Arabs. It is well known that the Arabs were known for a life based on conflict and fighting, which was preserved for us by military narratives under the name (the days of the Arabs), and entered into all the details of their lives. Is there anything other than the secret of the tribes, from which a law was born that can be defined (the doctrine of permissible violence)? Meaning that the outbreak of battle is permissible for all members of the tribes and not killing a renewed group, and this in turn creates a state of sanctity around the importance of the members of the tribes as they are soldiers of war, and that any attack on a man from the tribe is an attack and a threat to the entity of the tribe, and an appropriate response is necessary. This, in turn, created sacred customs around taking revenge, as it became a sacred religious ritual performed by the tribe’s members to gain the satisfaction of the spirit of the murdered person. Therefore, the battle of revenge is a sacred battle.

During the Abbasid period, Basra experienced significant political instability. The city's administrative authority contracted from managing an expansive region to overseeing only the town itself, where multiple factions vied for governance. This transition highlighted both the diminishing strength of the Abbasid Caliphate and the influence of external interventions on Basra’s political affairs. The Baridiyyin declared administrative autonomy from the Abbasid centre in Baghdad, instituting a system known as the annual guarantee. Eventually, a formidable rival displaced the Baridiyyin, leading to Buyid control over Basra’s administration. Owing to its strategic location as Iraq’s gateway to the Arabian Gulf, Basra attracted the ambitions of several regional powers and underwent considerable transformation. Persistent conflicts and warfare further destabilised the political and administrative landscape, prompting the Buyids to appoint new governors to manage the city.