AL-ANBAR University Journal of Law and Political Sciences

One of the measures of the success of a piece of legislation is the length of its application, and the passage of nearly fourteen and a half centuries since the entry into force of the Quranic legislation is clear evidence of its success. The neutral researcher notes, when analyzing the technique (mechanism) of enacting legislation in the Quranic text, that it is unique and unparalleled in terms of Contemporary positive laws from several aspects, this research sheds light on the most important of them, as the technique of legislation and its characteristics appear in the Qur’anic context, the plot of this technique on the one hand, and the ability of the Islamic legislative system to organize the practical aspects and keep pace with them in terms of application, which only the finest contemporary systems have reached. Recently, and this is due to the fact that this Sharia is separate from man-made legislation in many respects, on top of which is its enactment by the Creator of mankind, the Highest, according to sophisticated mechanisms for legislative drafting.
Modern man-made legislation tries to experiment with a variety of techniques and characteristics of legislation to remain in the field of development. This variety of techniques and characteristics is the essence of the Qur’an’s method in enacting its legislation. Perhaps the stagnation of the function of jurisprudence among Islamic jurists during the past centuries is explained by the inability of Islamic legislation to keep up. Contemporary developments, therefore, the time has come to clarify the context of the Qur’anic drafting (legislative), which is based on ijtihad, within the limits of the general principles of the Qur’an and Sunnah, which usually helps in building the prevailing social, economic and legal legislation according to it, in light of the crisis of drafting control and keeping up with the modernization that laws suffer from. Positive, with which a positive law may need to be amended, even before it is published in the Official Gazette.

This paper explores the concept of human security through a comprehensive framework that integrates Islamic values, international human rights standards, and Saudi Arabia’s national development priorities, particularly within the framework of Vision 2030. Human security transcends the mere absence of threats, it is presented as a foundational pillar for dignity, peace, and sustainable development.
To articulate this notion, the paper identifies seven core dimensions—personal, health, food, environmental, political, economic, and community security—each of which plays an essential role in promoting societal stability and individual well-being. The analysis emphasizes that Islamic principles emphasis on “Amn” (security) as a prerequisite for growth, stability, and social cohesion. Islamic sources: the Qur’an and the Hadith, underscore the right of all individuals to live free from fear and deprivation, irrespective of their background. In this context, the Charter of Medina is highlighted as an early legal model that institutionalized human security and peaceful coexistence.
Building on this religious and theological foundation, the paper examines Saudi Arabia’s tangible efforts to advance human security at both the national and international levels. It reviews a range of state-led initiatives in areas such as healthcare access, food provision, environmental stewardship—including the Saudi and Middle East Green Initiatives—political engagement, and the protection of social inclusion and cultural identity. Moreover, the Kingdom’s active collaboration with the United Nations through the UNSDCF, and its global humanitarian leadership via KSrelief, reflect a broader commitment to human security beyond its borders.
Finally, the paper demonstrates the interdependence between human security, human rights, and human development, arguing that progress in one reinforces the others. The steady rise in Saudi Arabia’s Human Development Index (HDI) further illustrates this synergy. Accordingly, the paper concludes by positioning Saudi Arabia as a compelling model for aligning national action plans with modern governance to ensure comprehensive and inclusive human security.

Private international law is witnessing a profound transformation in its philosophy and normative framework, resulting from the shift of conflict-of-laws rules from a world governed by territoriality to a digital sphere in which the physical borders of states are fading. Traditionally, conflict-of-laws rules were founded on the principle of territoriality, which assumes that legal relationships with a foreign element can be connected to a specific territory through established connecting factors. However, this conception has become incapable of accommodating the nature of virtual transactions occurring in a digital environment that neither recognizes location nor is subject to specific territorial sovereignty. In light of this transformation, there emerges a trend towards a modern philosophy of conflict-of-laws rules that redefines legal connections from a functional and digital perspective rather than a spatial one. The new conflict-of-laws rules arise from the logic of virtual impact and connection rather than the logic of territory and its boundaries. This necessitates the development of a hybrid system of conflict-of-laws rules that combines digital flexibility with guarantees of legal justice, ensuring a balance between state sovereignty and the protection of parties in cyberspace. It also requires the reformulation of concepts such as jurisdiction, the applicable law, and the recognition of foreign judgments in light of the growing virtual reality. Accordingly, the future of private international law is heading toward a dual philosophical transformation—from territory to space, and from place to function—reconstructing conflict-of-laws rules as a rational tool to regulate legal plurality in a world where borders have become more digital than geographical.

Intervention in administrative litigation is a procedural matter with a profound impact on the administrative judicial system. It constitutes an important means of expanding the scope of litigation, allowing the involvement of all potential or existing legal interests in the proceedings, thus strengthening the principles of administrative justice and guaranteeing fair litigation. Despite the importance of this procedure, Iraqi legislation has not specifically regulated it within the administrative judiciary laws. This has led to the adoption of the provisions of the Civil Procedure Code, while taking into account the specificity and procedural nature that distinguishes administrative judiciary from other jurisdictions. The study demonstrated that the acceptance of Intervention is conditional upon the existence of a real and direct legal interest of a third party. The intervention request must be submitted during the case review phase and before the closing of the pleadings, and the intervention must not be likely to impair the proper administration of justice or harm the interests of the parties to the original lawsuit. The study also sheds light on the various forms of intervention, distinguishing between joinder intervention, which is limited to supporting one of the parties without submitting specific requests, and independent intervention, which includes claiming individual rights that give the intervener the status of the original party in the litigation. The study also addressed the procedural aspect, explaining that the submission of an intervention request before administrative courts is subject to formal controls. The authority to accept or reject the request remains at the discretion of the administrative judge, based on the legitimacy of the interest and the consistency of the intervention with the nature of the administrative dispute. In terms of its effects, the acceptance of the intervention entails the entry of a third party into the lawsuit as an original or joined party. The rulings issued against the third party are binding on the third party, whether their intervention is to support one of the parties or to achieve an independent claim.
The study concluded that there Is an urgent need for Iraqi legislators to address this legislative gap through explicit provisions in procedural laws that regulate the cases of intervention, its controls, and its effects. This enhances procedural guarantees for individuals and achieves the principles of justice and equality before the administrative judiciary.

The issue of homosexuality and sex change is a controversial and controversial issue in all countries of the world, and countries were divided when regulating this issue, some countries allowed homosexuality and sex change through their laws on the pretext that these issues are related to the personal freedom of the person and must be respected, and another countries criminalized the commission of these practices on the pretext of violating human nature, public order, public morals and public modesty, and Iraq is among the countries that stipulated the criminalization of this behavior through Law No. (15) Of 2024, the first amendment to the Anti-Prostitution Law, and this law contains several problems from the constitutional, legal and realistic point of view, so through this research we have shown all these problems and proposed ways to resolve them.

This study examines the overlooked role of executive procedures in post-conflict contexts—specifically Iraq—in establishing procedural foundations that either facilitate or impede sustainable peace. The research aims to contribute to both theoretical discourse and the formulation of actionable policy recommendations for the executive authority in its peacebuilding efforts. The central hypothesis posits that the effectiveness of the Iraqi executive authority in peacebuilding is undermined by an ambiguous understanding of the legal weight of its obligations in this domain. Consequently, the prioritization of peace-related initiatives has been inconsistent and often ineffective. Merely adopting measures and asserting their relevance to peacebuilding is insufficient without a clear legal and normative framework. Accordingly, this study seeks to address the following core question: To what extent do the actions of the Iraqi executive authority possess legal validity in the context of peacebuilding, and how do these actions align with both domestic and international legal standards?

This study examines the evolution of economic relations between Russia and China before and after the Russian-Ukrainian war، Prior to 2022، China was already a major trading partner for Russia. However، following the imposition of Western sanctions on Moscow، China became Russia’s primary economic partner. This shift was reflected in a significant increase in bilateral trade، with Russia boosting its exports of oil and gas to China at preferential prices. Additionally، financial cooperation between the two countries has strengthened through the use of local currencies in bilateral trade. Politically، Russia and China have also grown closer، driven by their shared desire to challenge U.S. dominance in the international system.Nevertheless، this growing partnership is not without challenges. Concerns over potential Western sanctions، economic disparities between the two nations، and the South China Sea dispute all pose potential obstacles، These factors will play a crucial role in shaping the future of Russian-Chinese economic relations and their impact on the global economic system.

The discretionary authority granted to the administration is meant to enable it to fulfill its duties, especially in cases where no specific law or regulation exists, or where the law grants it broad powers to take administrative and legal actions. This authority is of particular importance in allowing the administration to respond effectively to various situations, whether ordinary or exceptional, in the course of its responsibilities. However, this authority may sometimes give rise to practices that deviate from the law, undermine the public interest, or open the door to misuse for personal gain, arbitrariness, or abuse of power.
To address this concern, the question arises regarding the necessity and effectiveness of judicial oversight over administrative activities, including all types of administrative acts, as judicial scrutiny provides the strongest safeguard. Such oversight should extend beyond the formal boundaries of administrative law, since the judiciary has increasingly sought to strike a balance between ensuring the protection of individual rights and freedoms on the one hand, and subjecting administrative decisions to review on the other—ultimately annulling decisions that conflict with the rule of law or that rest on a flawed exercise of discretion.
At the same time, judicial oversight should not overstep into restricting the administration’s legitimate discretionary authority, as this would undermine the principle of separation of powers and administrative independence. Nevertheless, the judiciary has not limited itself to a narrow, rigid approach; rather, it has applied a method of reasonableness, rationality, and balance by reviewing the facts underlying administrative decisions, annulling them when they amount to abuse of authority or violations of protected rights and freedoms, and by overseeing both the factual assessment and its legal characterization.
Although certain discretionary acts remain excluded from judicial scrutiny due to their highly technical or sensitive nature, the judiciary has nevertheless developed innovative approaches such as the “manifest error” doctrine and the principle of proportionality, in order to expand the scope of its oversight while maintaining respect for administrative functions. This has also extended to areas requiring a balance between competing interests, such as environmental protection, urban planning, and the safeguarding of public resources.
The study thus concludes that judicial oversight plays a crucial role in ensuring that administrative discretion remains aligned with the law, the public interest, and the principles of justice, thereby preventing arbitrariness and misuse of authority.

The Iraqi legislator addressed the crime of forgery of official and ordinary documents, and also criminalized their use as an independent crime in Chapter 3 of Book II of the Penal Code No. 111 of 1969, as amended, in addition to criminalizing the use of the documents referred to in paragraph 4 of Article 255 of the aforementioned Code. Because of the great importance of documents in evidence. Modern scientific developments and the need to speed up transactions between individuals have led to the use of means that parallel these developments, leading to the emergence of the so-called electronic or informational documents. However, the organization dealt with the crime of using forged documents to prove in a case or investigation within the articles dedicated to the crime of false testimony in paragraph (4) of Article (255), and mentioned in it words that differ from what is contained in Articles (286 and 289) for the crime of forgery and use of documents. This raises the question of the place of this crime in terms of its consideration of documents, and in terms of its elements and penalty. Therefore, the study aims to clarify the provisions of this crime and the extent to which it differs from the provisions of the crime of using forged documents in general. In particular, researchers and specialists in the field of law have not addressed this crime. By following the analytical approach to the legal texts related to this crime and then explaining its rulings.
At the conclusion of the research, we concluded that the Iraqi legislator did well when he criminalized the use of forged documents in Article (298) of the Penal Code, and his criminalization of the use of those documents to prove in a case or investigation, but he was unlucky in his organization of this crime in terms of lack of precision and arrangement of legal articles required by sound legal logic. Therefore, we recommend the Iraqi and Kurdish legislators to avoid this in the future, when amending the Penal Code, and to increase the penalty for this crime because it is an attack on the prestige of the official authorities, especially the judicial authorities. This crime can be realized with regard to the use of forged electronic documents as well, although this has not been regulated by the Iraqi and Kurdish legislators in explicit texts.

The contract of surety ship (guarantee) is considered one of the important contracts in practical life due to its role in enhancing the creditor's confidence, securing their rights, and providing security and reassurance to the debtor. Surety ship falls under personal guarantees, which involve the addition of another financial liability alongside the debtor's to ensure fulfillment of the obligation, as opposed to real guarantees that give the creditor priority in recovering the debt.
The importance of surety ship has increased with the expansion of credit, due to its ease of establishment and low cost. To protect the weaker party in this contract—the guarantor—legislators, including the Iraqi and Egyptian lawmakers, have granted several legal defenses, such as the right to demand the prior exhaustion of the debtor’s assets, division of the debt among co-guarantors, or release from the guarantee in certain cases0
In principle, surety ship is not joint unless otherwise agreed. In joint surety ship, the guarantor is treated as the principal debtor and becomes immediately liable for the debt without recourse to the debtor, placing them in a more burdensome legal position than an ordinary guarantor.
Because of the prevalence of joint guarantees in daily transactions, this research will explain the effects of the relationship between the guarantor and other guarantors regarding the joint guarantee contract.

This study demonstrates the effectiveness of decentralization in Japan by examining the nature of its response to crises. Two catastrophic events were selected: the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami and the 2019 COVID-19 pandemic. The nature of their response to the catastrophic effects was analyzed. he analysis was based on three key dimensions of decentralization that served as a framework for evaluating the effectiveness of the response...": extensive decentralization in favor of local governments; central leadership in local governments; and horizontal relationships between local governments. Through these dimensions, the practical nature of their responses during disasters was analyzed. The results indicated that, although local governments enjoy extensive autonomy in their response, this advantage was not linked to the response of the central government. Horizontal communication between local governments also faltered, indicating the existence of numerous gaps in the balance between all levels of government.

In this research, we tried to focus on the concepts and visions that explain the philosophy of federalism by presenting these ideas in a historical manner in order to conclude that federalism, despite its historical roots, had theological influences at the beginning, when applied models for it appeared. However, this concept has become deeper in our contemporary world due to a group of subjective and objective factors, penetrating into the social, economic and cultural motives of this phenomenon. Therefore, several theories have emerged to explain the phenomenon of federalism and answer its nature and the reasons for its success and failure. The indicators indicating federalism and commitment to the principles on which it is based are sufficient to show the extent of its success and failure, especially since it is a phased process in building the national state. Federalism is not to reject the sovereignty of different social groups, but rather it is a federal process based on recognizing the other and ensuring respect for its existence within a federal state.

The Basel Committee’s principles emerged as a direct response to the challenges faced by the global banking system, particularly following financial crises that exposed weaknesses in risk management and inadequate capital adequacy among many banks. The committee was established in 1974 by a group of central banks in major industrial countries to develop unified standards for supervision and regulation of the banking sector. Since then, these principles have evolved through several major stages, starting with the first Basel Accord in 1988 and culminating in Basel III, adopted in 2010 in the aftermath of the global financial crisis. The Basel Committee’s principles focus on enhancing the stability of the international financial system by regulating the banking sector. One of the key principles is capital adequacy, which aims to ensure that banks hold sufficient capital to address potential financial risks. Under the first Basel Accord, the capital adequacy ratio was set at 8% of risk-weighted assets, marking the beginning of stricter oversight of banks.
As financial markets evolved and risks became more complex, the need to update the principles arose. Basel II expanded the scope of risk management to include market, credit, and operational risks while emphasizing transparency through disclosure requirements. The global financial crisis of 2008 revealed gaps in these standards, leading to the introduction of Basel III. The new framework focused on improving the quality of capital, increasing liquidity requirements, and enhancing oversight of derivative financial instruments. Another significant principle is risk management, which requires banks to develop internal systems for assessing risks and conduct stress tests regularly to ensure stability in volatile economic conditions. The framework also underscores the importance of transparency and disclosure to build investor and customer confidence in the banking system.
In Iraq, the banking sector is a cornerstone of the national economy but faces significant challenges, including weak banking infrastructure and a lack of modern technology. Nevertheless, the Central Bank of Iraq has adopted Basel Committee principles as part of its efforts to reform the banking sector and strengthen confidence in the financial system. These efforts began with the implementation of certain aspects of Basel II, particularly those related to capital adequacy and risk management requirements. Iraqi banks were required to gradually increase their capital to meet the capital adequacy standards, which enhanced their ability to withstand financial shocks. Additionally, the Central Bank launched initiatives to develop human resources by offering training programs to equip banking staff with the knowledge and skills needed to understand and implement these standards. As for Basel III requirements, their implementation in Iraq remains limited due to a lack of technology and underdeveloped financial markets. However, the Central Bank has begun reinforcing liquidity and disclosure requirements and encouraging banks to adopt advanced risk management systems. Despite the progress made, implementing Basel Committee principles in Iraq faces several challenges. Key among these are weak banking legislation and the lack of sufficient financial market development to fully support the adoption of Basel standards. Furthermore, heavy reliance on traditional systems and the absence of advanced clearing systems restricts banks’ ability to manage complex financial instruments.
Nonetheless, the future holds significant opportunities, especially with the Central Bank’s ongoing efforts to enhance transparency and develop banking legislation. If the current challenges are addressed, the Basel Committee principles could play a pivotal role in transforming Iraq’s banking sector into a robust engine for supporting national economic stability and growth.

In light of the technological and scientific advancements witnessed by the medical profession and the accompanying complexity within healthcare institutions, physicians' responsibilities have become more complex. Given the medical profession's connection to human life and physical safety, this requires practitioners to exercise a degree of precision and care in their work. Therefore, physicians' responsibilities are not limited to their personal actions alone, but may extend to include the physician's responsibility for others associated with them within the medical team, such as physician assistants or nursing staff, as well as for damages resulting from medical instruments and equipment used during treatment or surgical intervention. This responsibility raises numerous issues, particularly regarding the physician's commitment to ensuring patient safety and the limits of their liability for the actions of others or for items under their supervision. Hence, the importance of studying the basis of physician liability for the actions and actions of others becomes apparent, in order to establish the legal and judicial foundations upon which physician liability is based. This is to achieve a balance between protecting the patient and not burdening the physician with more than their actual capacity or duties.

The study focused on the role played by artificial intelligence in promoting good governance in the United Arab Emirates as a model for study in the Arab region. The study raised questions related to the smart efforts made by the UAE in this regard, and sought to prove that the legislative, legal, and institutional frameworks, strategies, programs, and smart plans played a role in creating a good governance environment that consolidates the foundations of the political system. The study concluded that the roles played by artificial intelligence tools had an impact in meeting citizen demands (responsiveness and sensitivity, which are among the most important elements of good governance). It also enhanced transparency, accountability, and the rule of law, which are the most important pillars of good governance.

This study aims to explore the key reasons and motivations behind the foreign interventions seeking to establish a foothold in Libya since the outbreak of the 2011 revolution. The widespread chaos that followed revealed the true objectives pursued by various regional powers—including Arab states, Turkey, and Iran—alongside major international actors. These external roles have often been justified by sustained support for Libyan opposition forces, primarily driven by the pursuit of economic gains and the desire to ensure a steady flow of Libyan oil at reduced prices compared to pre-crisis levels. Such interventions are underpinned by clear political and economic agendas, with each state striving either to exploit Libya’s natural resources or to assert strategic influence by filling the regional power vacuum. Turkey’s growing role, for instance, contrasts sharply with Egypt’s diminishing influence as a key regional player in Libyan affairs. Additionally, some interventions are driven by cultural and social considerations, as exemplified by China's efforts to reshape its image across the African continent as a peaceful power offering developmental aid—distinct from the United States, whose dominant presence in Libya is often viewed as a strategy to secure energy supplies at the expense of Libya’s national security and stability. Meanwhile, Russia’s involvement is largely motivated by its aim to counterbalance and challenge U.S. influence in Africa, thereby preventing American dominance over the region. The study underscores that Libya has become a geopolitical arena for competing global and regional interests, each seeking to maximize its influence amid the ongoing instability.

If the origin of administrative judicial oversight is that it is a control of legitimacy, this does not prevent it from being a control of legitimacy and appropriateness together, whether appropriateness is a condition for legitimacy or an independent control. The administrative judge has expanded the scope of his judicial oversight to the point of intervening in assessing the appropriateness of issuing the decision, aiming through this intervention to guarantee the freedoms of individuals. The administrative decision has internal elements represented by the elements of jurisdiction, form and procedures, and external elements represented by the elements of reason and subject matter, and the third is the element of purpose. The administrative judicial policy in general with regard to the control of appropriateness is evident and appears in the external elements of the decision. However, its features, even if they are not prominent in the internal elements of the decision, their importance is hardly less than in the external elements. Rather, it is of great importance in countries that are new to administrative judiciary, such as Iraq, especially if the legislation regulating administrative judiciary precedes the existence of the judiciary itself or the main texts regulating administrative disputes do not cover all administrative disputes. This importance increases when these legislative texts regulating the nature of these disputes do not conform to them or no longer keep pace with them due to the changes that have occurred in Administrative life.

Despite the importance and seriousness of malicious litigation, the Iraqi legislator has not established a specific provision or general theory addressing malicious litigation in criminal matters. Even the existing legal texts related to this issue suffer from certain deficiencies and a great deal of ambiguity, which has negatively affected the handling of such cases. As a result, problems have become more complex, and the right to litigation has shifted from being a means of protecting rights and interests to a cause for the loss of those rights. Malicious litigation is a form of abusive or deceitful use of the right to litigation. It is a type of trickery, cunning, and deception resorted to by those lacking evidence or unsupported by the law. It is closely tied to the principle of good faith, as the freedom and right of parties to litigate is limited and not absolute. A party who does not act in good faith when presenting evidence—whether in making a claim or offering a defense—is considered to be acting in bad faith. Although parties have the freedom to present evidence for their claims or defenses by various means, they are obligated to ensure that such evidence and arguments are lawful and free from malice, deceit, and fraud. The purpose of such tactics is often to obtain a court ruling in their favor. Malicious litigation can be committed by any party, whether litigants, judges, or their aides, and at any stage of criminal proceedings. Its basis is a false claim, but it may evolve into other crimes, such as blackmail, forgery, and fraud—this is where its danger lies. Therefore, we propose that the Iraqi legislator provide effective protection for human rights, particularly the right to litigation, by establishing a criminal policy based on preventive criminalization, whereby malicious behavior is penalized

The research sheds light on the study and analysis of the most significant strategic objectives that India is trying to achieve towards the Arab Gulf States, especially towards the UAE, also describing the mechanisms it employs in its strategy within this framework. In order to achieve the objectives of the research, it relied on the use of the analytical method to describe the Indian strategy its relations towards the countries of the region during the )Narendra Modi( government, therefore the research concluded a set of conclusions, the most prominent of which was India objectives seeks to achieve in the region have become more broad to include political, security and cultural aspects in addition to economic ones. The study deals with many issues, starting from the stages of development of Indo-Gulf relations, through the Indian strategic objectives towards the Arab Gulf countries and their mechanisms, also Indian strategy towards the UAE. In addition to future outlook for Indo-Gulf relations on the regional and international arenas.

This research analyzes the protected interests in traffic crimes under current Iraqi legislation. It presents a legal and analytical study focusing on the legal definition, characteristics, and the rationale behind criminalizing traffic violations. The study begins by defining traffic crime from linguistic, jurisprudential, legislative, and judicial perspectives, highlighting the lack of a clear and unified definition in most Arab legal systems.
The research identifies core characteristics of traffic crimes: they stem from unlawful human behavior that causes bodily or material harm and often involve both criminal and administrative penalties. A key focus is placed on the protected interests, such as the protection of life, public and private property, public order
And the research finds that Iraqi legislation lacks a clear legal definition of traffic crime, despite its frequent occurrence and societal impact, traffic crimes are subject to dual penalties—both criminal and administrative, and Iraqi traffic laws require reform to explicitly address environmental and economic protections, aligning with modern societal needs.

The subject of the insurance agent is a newly emerging subject. Its first appearance as an independent legal system with its own independent provisions dates back to the 2017 amendment to the French Civil Code. The subject of the study is considered a tool for managing insurance and guarantees for the benefit of third parties - creditors - but the agent in question, when he carries out the task entrusted to him, acts in his own name, not in the name of the creditors who appointed him Which gives it a special character that is not present in all legal systems, whose work may also be to manage some insurance, as other systems act in the name of the principal

Natural disasters are among the most serious threats to both the environment and human life, often causing widespread destruction and long-lasting impacts that are difficult to manage. This makes international cooperation not just important—but essential—in reducing the suffering and damage these disasters leave behind. It calls for coordinated relief efforts and humanitarian aid to help communities recover, mitigate environmental risks, and establish systems of protection.
Throughout history, natural disasters have posed significant threats to human existence and stability. Earthquakes, volcanoes, fires, epidemics, and famines have claimed more lives and caused greater losses than many wars, forcing people to flee their homes in search of safety. In response to these unstoppable natural events, humanity has worked tirelessly to develop preventive and responsive strategies to reduce damage and loss.
This research explores the gravity of natural disasters and their profound impact on social and economic life—especially in light of increasing environmental changes and disaster risks. It examines the international mechanisms that should be activated during crises, along with the standards that strengthen global cooperation to provide humanitarian relief and facilitate recovery. The goal is to understand how international legal frameworks can help communities return to normalcy and limit the destruction caused by disasters.
Recent events and disasters across the world—particularly in the Middle East—make it clear that many nations still need to adopt more sustainable and effective approaches rooted in human solidarity and global cooperation.

This study addresses the concept of arbitration through artificial intelligence, a subject of growing theoretical and practical importance amid rapid technological advancements, particularly in digital transactions and smart contracts executed via Block chain technology.
The study aims to clarify the conceptual framework of AI-based arbitration by defining it as an emerging form of dispute resolution that utilizes algorithms and intelligent platforms. It further examines the various types of AI arbitration, where artificial intelligence may serve either as an alternative to, or in support of, human arbitrators. The study highlights key advantages of this model, such as efficiency, impartiality, and cost reduction, while also identifying practical limitations, especially regarding its capacity to comprehend and address complex legal contexts.

Money laundering practices have emerged as a criminal phenomenon globally with the phenomena of scientific and technological development, which have led to increased interaction between countries, which has facilitated the transfer of capital between them, and given the opportunity for organized crime gangs to carry out their activities by collecting money through illegal means and subsequent work on expression to appear as if it were from a legitimate source, under conditions in which there is no legal regulation that faces the risks of development What increases the risks of the crime of money laundering in our present era is that it has transcended national borders and moved into a broader and broader field at the international level thanks to technical means, globalization and modern technology, which has prompted the international community as a whole to confront this crime with various mechanisms, with the conviction that it cannot be eliminated, but in order to combat it and limit its negative effects that may cross the past and present and extend to the future, which are not limited to local crime Rather, it has extended to international organized crime. In contrast, the crime of money laundering currently represents a complex challenge to global legal and economic systems, and requires the adoption of a special punitive policy that takes into account its complex nature and broad economic and social impacts in order to overcome and combat punitive challenges.

The study discusses the role of constitutions in ensuring transitional justice after conflicts. The study is divided into two sections: the first is devoted to the conceptual and legal framework of transitional justice and the transitional constitution, while the second is devoted to applied case studies of transitional justice in Iraq and South Africa, based on analytical and historical approaches. The research problem was to demonstrate the extent to which constitutions can build new political systems within the context of transitional justice. We concluded the research with a number of findings and proposals. The main result was that the link between transitional justice, the transitional constitution, and the new political system is a necessary and reciprocal relationship that complements the political (transitional justice), legal (transitional constitution), and institutional (new political system) context.

Russia has played a significant role in sub-Saharan Africa since 2014, and has motives and goals it seeks to achieve, with motives and goals it seeks to achieve. This research aims to focus on the goals, tools, and areas of this role that Russia exercised in this region after 2014. With the outbreak of the Ukrainian crisis and the imposition of Western sanctions, Russia sought to expand its role in sub-Saharan Africa, seeking new global outlets and a space to exercise its role and break its isolation. Russia adopted a set of goals that it sought to achieve, using a variety of tools. Based on both the descriptive and analytical approaches, it became clear that there was a gradual expansion of the Russian role in the sub-Saharan Africa region after 2014, and in all fields. Russia has achieved an influential political and diplomatic role through its involvement in the region, its security and military penetration, and its significant economic gains. This has raised concerns in the West and weakened its influence in region due to the expansion of Russia\'s role there.

Governance has various concepts and holds significance across multiple sectors, including corporations, financial markets, and investment. It also plays a crucial role in curbing financial and administrative corruption. Consequently, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has given it considerable attention and established several principles for it. Despite the late emergence of the term "governance" and the OECD's establishment of its principles, national legislations—such as the Iraqi Companies Law—contain legal provisions that inherently encompass many corporate governance principles. The primary reason behind the OECD's adoption of specific governance principles was the economic and financial crises that affected companies and other financial institutions.

Methods of expressing the will are external means and manifestations that convey the will from the inner self to the external world or to the knowledge of others. These methods are either positive or negative. Expression is a means of revealing the will, through which it manifests to the external world, producing its effects in every way that allows the will to be communicated to others and its content accurately understood. Therefore, there is no specific form that must be adopted to express the will. There are many means by which the will is disclosed, working to transfer the latent will within the self to an outward will known to others. These means are divided into positive manifestations, generally suitable for expressing the will, such as speech, writing, gestures, and positive stances indicative of the will, and negative manifestations, suitable specifically for expressing the will under certain circumstances and contextual clues that lead to the meaning of the will, as is the case with silence expressing the will.

On 19/7/2024, the International Court of Justice issued its advisory opinion - based on the request of the United Nations General Assembly dated 31/12/2022 regarding the Zionist occupation of the Palestinian territories- as it considered it to be in violation of international law, and consistent with Security Council Resolution No. (242) issued on 22 November 1967, which calls for withdrawal to the borders preceding the 1967 war. This is considered a new affirmative position in condemning the Zionist entity in its occupation of the Palestinian territories, to be added to the dozens of resolutions supporting the Palestinian cause issued by the General Assembly, or the opinions of the International Court of Justice in its advisory capacity. Although this opinion is of an advisory nature, it has a great impact and effective resonance in defining the justice of the Palestinian cause, and the invalidity of the Zionist claims in the occupation, and it negatively affects the overall relations of the Zionist entity with the international community.

Drug crimes are considered serious crimes that threaten the entity and stability of society, due to their devastating effects on the social fabric, especially the youth. Recently, a significant increase in the spread of these crimes has been observed, which calls for an understanding of the causes of this exacerbation and ways to address it. In this context, the responsibility of educational institutions emerges as one of the most prominent state institutions entrusted with a fundamental role in awareness and prevention,However, the reality indicates a clear failure on the part of these institutions to carry out their awareness-raising duties regarding the dangers of drug use or trafficking.
Educational institutions, with their intellectual and educational tools of influence, are supposed to play an effective role in instilling sound values in young people and protecting them from behavioral deviations associated with drug use or trafficking, by organizing systematic awareness programs, such as lectures, seminars, and relevant workshops, However, the absence of effective educational strategies and the diminishing educational efforts directed at this phenomenon constitute a serious dereliction of responsibility on the part of these institutions and calls for a comprehensive review of their roles and related curricula.

After innovations in administrative work and the desire to embrace e-government systems, the public administrations have set up electronic institutions and facilities, thus crafting a flexible and courteous electronic administrative decision-making system. The system supports cancellation, modification or creation of legal status through sophisticated electronic means, software and technology, thus fulfilling the purposes and objectives desired as well as effective operation of public facilities. Thus, by making a decision in accordance with the rules, based on conditions and circumstances, the decision becomes binding and almost irreducible to revocation, without thereby implying that the administration cannot revoke its decisions even if electronic devices were employed in their issuance. If it is discovered that the decision has gone beyond the purpose for which it was taken or been tainted by an inherent vice or defect whose results cannot be remedied in the future, the administration has no choice but to revoke it via the same electronic means via which it was promulgated.

This study aims to analyze and examine the strategic and geopolitical importance of the Horn of Africa region. The Horn of Africa region enjoys a significant strategic location at both the international and regional levels. Its importance is further enhanced by its vast mineral wealth, most notably oil, as well as other resources. The study addresses international competition over the Horn of Africa region, a region that has been and continues to be the focus of international powers as a major transit point for international trade and the primary gateway for Arabian Gulf oil. The study also highlights the competition between the United States and China in the Horn of Africa region.

Distribution of Power: Federalism helps distribute power between the central government and states or regions, preventing concentration of power and promoting democracy. When studying federalism, several problems can arise related to the concept and its applications. These include, for example, the concept of federalism: What does the concept of federalism mean for different countries? Interpretations and applications can vary from one country to another, making the study more complex. Balance of Powers: How can a balance be achieved between the central government and the states? In some cases, tensions may arise over the distribution of power, leading to legal and political conflicts. Civil Rights: How does federalism preserve the civil rights of individuals and groups? There may be challenges in ensuring respect for these rights within a system that distributes power. As for the study plan, we divide the research into the following plan: Section One: Federalism: Definition and Related Concepts. Section One: The Concept of Federalism. Section Two: Federalism and Related Concepts. Section Two: Aspects and Characteristics of Federalism. Section One: Aspects of Federalism. Section Two: Characteristics of Federalism.

This study examines the challenges and opportunities facing Iran's foreign policy during the presidency of Hassan Rouhani (2013-2021), with Iraq as a case study. The importance of this issue lies in Iran's significant role and presence in Iraq's political landscape. These challenges and opportunities shape the extent of Iran's influence in various spheres of Iraqi political life. The study also highlights the key challenges and opportunities confronting Iran's foreign policy toward Iraq during Hassan Rouhani's presidency. It employs a descriptive (qualitative) analysis method and applies the theory of structural realism. As a result, the study found that several significant challenges and opportunities confronted Iran's foreign policy during Hassan Rouhani's presidency, including the emergence of the terrorist organization ISIS, which captured a third of Iraq's territory, balancing the presence and influence of the United States, and the assassination of Qassem Soleimani. Opportunities included security cooperation against ISIS, economic expansion, and Iranian influence following the defeat of ISIS. These challenges and opportunities were products of the anarchy of the international system and Iraq's lack of order and power distribution. These challenges and opportunities influenced Iran's influence and role in Iraq under Hassan Rouhani.

This study addresses international responsibility for natural disasters as a legal and humanitarian issue in international law. It focuses on analyzing the legal and regulatory frameworks governing states' obligations in responding to these disasters. It explains that disasters such as earthquakes, floods, drought, and climate change cause significant environmental, economic, and social damage, which calls for the development of a legal framework that enhances international cooperation and supports affected countries, particularly developing countries. In this context, the study uses Iraq as a case study, given its exposure to multiple challenges such as drought, desertification, and floods, which are caused by both natural and human-caused factors, including inequitable regional water policies. The study emphasizes the need to strengthen international laws in the areas of prevention, preparedness, and the provision of humanitarian aid.
The study concludes that the current international legal system suffers from deficiencies in enforcement and implementation, and lacks clear texts and effective mechanisms. It also emphasizes that Iraq faces internal and regional challenges but has the potential to contribute to the development of international law if it undertakes national reforms and activates regional and international cooperation. Among the proposals put forward by the study are developing a binding legal system for international cooperation in disasters, establishing a specialized international body for disaster management, making humanitarian aid a legal obligation, and providing funding and technology to developing countries. Iraq also needs to modernize its legislation and improve its infrastructure and early warning and management capabilities. This study represents an important contribution to promoting environmental justice and international solidarity, and supporting developing countries in confronting natural disasters and the challenges of climate change.

With the advancement of technology, these contracts have become a new reality, as producers, marketers, and providers of goods and services increasingly rely on electronic advertising. However, this also facilitates the misleading of consumers through false electronic advertisements containing incorrect or fake information about products and services, leading to inaccurate descriptions. The importance of this topic lies in the seriousness of misleading advertising, a behavioral crime that does not require the realization of a criminal outcome. The law punishes this behavior as soon as it occurs, without requiring a specific outcome. However, the occurrence of damage entails contractual liability resulting from a breach of contractual obligation. Therefore, in this research, the researcher relied on an analytical approach to analyze legal texts related to consumer protection and the extent to which misleading commercial advertisements resulting from the advanced use of modern online communication sites are prohibited, while comparing the legislation of other countries with those that have paid special attention to the consumer.

Women’s poverty constitutes one of the most pressing and complex global challenges due to its wide-ranging negative social and developmental impacts, arising from the interplay of multiple economic, social, health-related, and cultural factors. These dynamics have given rise to the phenomenon of the “feminization of poverty,” which necessitates a focused inquiry into the problem of women’s poverty and the mechanisms for addressing it within the framework of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development has accorded significant attention to the eradication of poverty, which serves as the foundation of this study. Accordingly, this research seeks to highlight approaches to addressing women’s poverty through the relevant SDGs, particularly Goal 1 (No Poverty), Goal 2 (Zero Hunger), Goal 4 (Quality Education), and Goal 5 (Gender Equality).In addition, the study emphasizes the pivotal role of international law in providing a legal framework that supports and reinforces the SDGs in combating women’s poverty. This is reflected through international instruments, treaties, and conventions that have moved beyond merely affirming and protecting women’s rights, toward empowering women economically, socially, and politically. Ultimately, the research demonstrates the integration between the SDGs and international legal norms in addressing women’s poverty.

This research investigates the development and challenges of non-oil investment in Iraq following the year 2003. In the aftermath of regime change and years of conflict, Iraq has sought to diversify its economy and reduce dependence on oil revenues. The study focuses on sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing, tourism, and services, evaluating the extent of local and foreign investments in these fields. Key obstacles, including legal uncertainties, corruption, political instability, and inadequate infrastructure, are examined in depth. Moreover, the research highlights the importance of reforming institutional frameworks to attract and sustain non-oil investments. Through a comprehensive analysis, the study aims to assess the effectiveness of current policies and propose recommendations for fostering a more balanced and resilient Iraqi economy.

One of the economic blocs with an impact on the current international system and in international security is the BRICS bloc, as this gathering includes five countries: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa, in addition to several countries that have recently joined, such as Iran, this bloc was established to enhance economic and political cooperation among its members, and has an increasing impact on the international arena, and the importance of this research lies in addressing the impact of the BRICS bloc on international security, by analyzing the challenges faced by this bloc and the opportunities that Provided by the bloc for global security, the research aims to clarify the growing influence of BRICS in the face of Western hegemony, and its impact on international policies, in addition to security cooperation between member states, intelligence exchange and coordination in the face of common threats such as terrorism, as well as the research aims to review the most prominent challenges faced by the bloc, including the existence of regional disputes between member states, the research has started from the premise that (the BRICS bloc affects international security, as it seeks (BRICS countries) which work With global economic growth towards a multipolar world and heading toThe research has reached a set of conclusions, the most important of which is that the bloc had a major role in influencing international security by addressing some crises among its member states as well as in dealing with crises such as climate change, epidemics and cooperation in humanitarian relief efforts, and the bloc was able to enhance the ability of Member states influence international security and contribute to the creation of a new balance of power that may lead to stability or instability in the international system, it represents a new force in the international arena, and increasingly affects international security by strengthening cooperation among its members and facing common challenges

This study aims to analyze the impact of commercial legislation on the development and growth of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Iraq, with a particular focus on evaluating the effectiveness of the current legal environment in supporting this vital sector. The research is based on an extensive review of relevant studies and reports, seeking to highlight the importance of an effective legal framework in enhancing the business climate and motivating entrepreneurs to establish and expand their ventures.
The researcher employed a descriptive analytical approach, collecting data through literature review, quantitative analysis of economic growth indicators for SMEs, and case studies of successful enterprises to understand the contributing factors and challenges faced. The findings indicate that bureaucratic complexities, weak enforcement of laws, insufficient governmental support, and the impact of tax laws constitute major obstacles to sector growth. The study provides a detailed examination of the role of commercial legislation in facilitating the procedures for establishing projects, emphasizing the urgent need to review and simplify existing laws, develop financial and administrative support mechanisms, and protect investors' rights, particularly intellectual property rights. Furthermore, it discusses other legal challenges, such as corruption and weak law enforcement, and their adverse effects on the business environment. A set of practical recommendations is proposed to promote legislative and administrative reforms, aiming to improve the investment climate in Iraq. In conclusion, the study recommends simplifying procedures, reforming tax laws, enhancing transparency, activating governmental support programs, and protecting investors' rights to create an attractive business environment that fosters innovation and contributes to sustainable economic development in Iraq.

This research presents a comparative analytical study on the subject of the extradition of offenders in light of both Iraqi domestic law and relevant international conventions, with the aim of shedding light on the legal frameworks and procedures adopted in this field. The study also focuses on identifying the legal foundations governing the extradition process under Iraqi legislation, starting from constitutional provisions, the Iraqi penal code and specific laws such as the Code of Criminal Procedure and the Law on Ratification of International Conventions. It also reviews the most prominent international and regional agreements to which Iraq is a party, foremost among them the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and various bilateral agreements. Furthermore, the research compares the conditions and procedures applied under Iraqi domestic law with those stipulated in international conventions.

Smart contracts are digital protocols programmed on the blockchain network that automatically execute agreements once pre-defined conditions are met, without human intervention.
These contracts are characterized by transparency, speed, and security, as they are stored and documented on a network that cannot be easily modified.
Smart contracts rely on software code that defines conditions and procedures, making their implementation precise but also irreversible or easily modified after publication. They are used in several fields, including decentralized finance (DFI), supply chain management, and digital healthcare.
Despite these advantages, smart contracts face fundamental challenges, most notably software vulnerabilities that can be exploited by attackers due to the lack of a clear legal framework in many countries, the difficulty of interpreting human intentions through software code alone, and the limited ability of smart contracts to handle exceptional or complex situations.

This research addresses the issue of state violence as a complex philosophical and political phenomenon, by tracing its conceptual development between two major intellectual schools: the political realism of Niccolò Machiavelli and the critical rationalism of Jacqueline Rose.
The study begins by analyzing Machiavelli’s vision, as one of the earliest thinkers to regard violence as a legitimate tool of governance, necessary for preserving the state and maintaining order. In his renowned work The Prince, Machiavelli presents a pragmatic conception that legitimizes the use of violence whenever the state's interest demands it, thus creating a decisive rupture with the idealistic ethical frameworks that characterized the pre-Renaissance period.
The research then moves to deconstruct Jacqueline Rose’s conceptualization, which approaches state violence from a contemporary critical perspective, focusing on the psychological and social dimensions of violence and the ways it is rationalized within modern rational structures. Rose argues that violence exercised by the state is no longer a temporary political necessity, but has become deeply embedded within rational systems themselves, making resistance to it more complex and profound.
Moreover, the research highlights the major transformations in the concept of violence throughout this long intellectual journey: from being a politically necessary physical act to becoming a system rooted in modern cultural and political structures.
Ultimately, the study concludes that understanding the philosophical foundations of state violence requires moving beyond traditional approaches that focus solely on its visible manifestations, toward an analysis of the deep structures that legitimize and perpetuate it. Thus, the research represents an attempt to expand the perspective on state violence as a complex intellectual phenomenon rather than merely a rigid political instrument.

This study examined the role played by international organization (global and regional) towards the Israeli aggression on Gaza،which has been ongoing since(10/7/2024)، and attempted to monitor the actions they have taken since the beginning of the aggression،reaching an attempt to know and identify the challenges facing it and limiting its role in putting an end to Human violations and genocide in Gaza، The study concluded in its results that the role of the United Nations was and still is governed by the wills of western countries، especially the United State of America، while the league of Arab States does not reflect the wills of Arab peoples as much as they reflect the will of the ruling political regimes.

The Iraqi political system faces significant challenges in ensuring its legitimacy, with performance and effectiveness playing a crucial role in strengthening or undermining this legitimacy. In light of the security, economic, and political challenges facing Iraq, it is crucial to study the impact of government performance and political effectiveness on the legitimacy of the Iraqi political system. This research aims to explore the relationship between government performance, political effectiveness, and the legitimacy of the Iraqi political system, analyze the factors influencing this relationship, and provide recommendations for strengthening the legitimacy of the Iraqi political system by improving performance and effectiveness.

Since 2011, Syrian-Turkish relations have undergone a significant transformation, shifting from close cooperation to complex tensions and conflicts. In the years preceding the Syrian crisis, relations between the two countries were marked by openness and economic and security cooperation. Visas between them were waived, and trade and cultural relations flourished, with Turkey emerging as a major supporter of development and stability in Syria. However, with the outbreak of the Syrian crisis in 2011, the interests and political stances of the two states diverged, leading to a notable deterioration in relations,From the beginning, Turkey adopted a policy of supporting the Syrian opposition against President Bashar al-Assad’s regime, aiming to change the political system in Syria, which Turkey viewed as unstable and a threat to its security. Turkey provided support to armed opposition groups and hosted opposition political leaders, in addition to receiving Syrian refugees. At the same time, Turkey sensed the risk of Kurdish influence expanding in northern Syria, especially with the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) controlling vast areas with support from the United States. This prompted Turkey to intervene militarily in Syria through operations such as "Euphrates Shield," "Olive Branch," and "Peace Spring" to secure its borders and prevent the establishment of an independent Kurdish entity,This military intervention by Turkey, along with its support for the Syrian opposition, deepened its rift with the Syrian government and further complicated the Syrian scene. Over the years, security and humanitarian concerns on both sides of the border have increased, and regional and international interests in Syria have become more intertwined, making it difficult to reach a final settlement.

Since World War II, the idea of liberalizing international trade rules and benefiting from developing countries' markets began, and the field that witnessed a sudden explosion is international trade in digital trade and data (digital trading), including (commercial digital accounting services contract). This research addresses the legal frameworks applied to international trade in digital services by studying (commercial digital accounting services contract) and determining its nature, to monitor the legal rules that address electronic commerce in Iraq, of which digital trade (goods and services) is a part, and to evaluate the extent of the Iraqi legislator's awareness in addressing the various aspects of digital consumer protection in this contract, in addition to our exposure to the most important provisions of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), the legal controversy over the classification of digital products as services or whether these programs are complex goods (complex packages). We concluded that international trade contracts (with a foreign element) are characterized by the characteristic of submission found in many e-commerce contracts and the majority of programming contracts. Then it became clear to us that it is necessary to abandon the main principle adopted by the Iraqi legislator in Article (25) of the Civil Code in Article (21) of the Electronic Signature Law, which is not to give free rein to the contracting parties in choosing the law applicable to the contract in electronic transactions and to set a condition for choosing a law that has a direct connection to the contract, in addition to the necessity of providing protection in the Iraqi Consumer Law No. (1) of (2010) regarding electronic commercial contracts with a foreign (international) element and to stipulate the law that is most suitable for the consumer, as it is the weakest in the world of e-commerce and to confront the characteristic of submission found in digital services contracts with a foreign element.

The Russian Federation enjoys diverse power structures that form the basis of its international politics, including a vast geographical area spanning two continents, and huge natural resources such as gas and oil, as well as a nuclear and military legacy that enhances its position as a major power, as these factors have enabled it to maintain its regional and international influence despite economic challenges and repeated Western sanctions.
And within the framework of its foreign policies, the Russian Federation clearly used its military power in several regional conflicts, most notably its intervention in Georgia in 2008, as it strengthened its influence in South Ossetia and Abkhazia, and also extended its presence in Ukraine in 2014 through the annexation of the Crimean peninsula, which is a turning point in Russian-Western relations.
And the policy continued in the Ukrainian crisis again in 2022, when the Russian Federation carried out a large-scale military operation, which reflected its effects on the international system through the restructuring of alliances and increasing divisions between the East and the West.
In addition, Russian influence has extended to the Middle East, especially in Syria, as the Russian military intervention since 2015 has formed a turning point in the course of the conflict and restored the Russian Federation's position in the regional equation. Through this combination of geographical, military and political factors, the Russian Federation continues to seek to maintain its position as a force that cannot be ignored in the formulation of the new international system.

On September 15, 2021, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia announced the signing of a security alliance called the AUKUS Alliance. The alliance is understood as a strategic reinforcement to limit Chinese ambitions and dominance in the strategically important Indo-Pacific region. Under this alliance, the United States will supply Australia with nuclear-powered submarines. The aim of the alliance is to create a strategic balance in the Indian and Pacific Oceans region, with the transfer of American and British technologies to Australia in other areas such as artificial intelligence and computing. This alliance reflects changes in the global strategic context. The alliance may bear the contradictions in the positions and relations of European countries, in addition to the fact that the alliance has repercussions on the relationship between the allies within the framework of the Chinese confrontation and hegemony in the Indo-Pacific region.

The debate over the difference between will and volition is not merely a linguistic issue; it is a profound philosophical and legal problem related to the nature of human action and its extension over time. In traditional philosophy, will is considered an expression of a conscious and specific decision made by a person at a specific moment, while volition is understood as a dynamic and continuous process in the individual's interaction with reality, making it more consistent with legal phenomena characterized by flexibility and change. When analyzing a contract from the perspective of will, we find that traditional legal jurisprudence is based on the assumption that contracting is a decisive moment in which the parties' wills are "frozen" at a specific point, such that contractual obligations become fixed according to the texts agreed upon at that moment. This view is based on the principle of "freedom of contract," which holds that a contract can only be modified by a new agreement between the parties, making the obligation appear as if it were an unalterable past.

The study outlines the general framework of the research problem, firstly highlighting the persistence of development gaps between developed and developing countries, attributing this in part to differences in the quality of institutions and rules governing economic and political activity. It defines "institutions" according to the literature of "new institutional economics" (North, Williamson) and briefly distinguishes between de jure (formal legal) and de facto (actual practice) institutions. It argues that the combination of the rule of law, efficient bureaucracy, control of corruption, and an open business environment constitute necessary foundations for long-term growth. The study then explains the system of indicators it will rely on: the Heritage Index of Economic Freedom with its four dimensions (rule of law, size of government, regulatory efficiency, and market openness); the Doing Business Index, which compares business environment reforms across 190 economies; and the World Economic Forum's (WGI) six-index index (voice and accountability, political stability, government effectiveness, legislative quality, rule of law, and control of corruption). The study provides a description of each data source and a brief explanation of its methodology. It then presents comparative graphs and tables: a figure showing the evolution of GDP per capita across regions (1965–2019), a comparative bar showing Arab countries' scores in the 2020 Doing Business Index, and a matrix table showing Arab countries' WGI scores in 2019. The study concludes—through a descriptive reading of these findings—that Arab countries record modest levels in the components of governance, openness, and regulatory efficiency compared to other regions, and that structural institutional gaps hinder the transformation of material and demographic resources into inclusive and sustainable growth. The Index of Economic Freedom also divides the results into standard categories (free: 80–100; mostly free: 70–79.9; moderately free: 60–69.9; repressed, etc.) and is based on four pillars: rule of law, size of government, regulatory efficiency, and market openness. This division facilitates tracking weaknesses by pillar for each country, as evidenced by the study's evidence and copies of the attached tables (Miller, Kim, & Roberts, 2020). The study is noted for its effort to compile a rapid panoramic picture linking the overall institutional structure to economic performance, drawing on foundational literature (North; Acemoglu et al.; Rodrik) and referencing ESCWA's classifications of the region's economies by resource and labor abundance. However, as we will demonstrate, the study remains closer to a descriptive background paper than to a causal empirical investigation capable of estimating a precise numerical impact and explaining its variations within the region.

The credit for crystallizing the concept of soft power goes to American political science professor Joseph Nye at the end of the last century. Before passed away, Nye emphasized the influence of American soft power around the world. However, before his passing last May, in his final article published on the website of PS Quarterly: Post Americana magazine, titled "The Future of American Soft Power," published in June 2025, he warned of the repercussions of US President Donald Trump's policies, including the slowdown in American soft power and China's attempts to develop its soft power around the world. This, he argued, was despite the challenges facing the rise of Chinese soft power due to its border issues and the policies of the ruling party. At the same time, he indicated that the risks surrounding American soft power could be mitigated if Trump reversed his policies, which are based on weakening trust among US allies, strengthening his imperial ambitions, and reducing aid budgets. as these actions would set Trump up against China's rising power, However, he stated that this would be costly and difficult to quickly restore trust, according to the author of the article. Accordingly, this review aims to understand the challenges and opportunities facing the future of American soft power. The researcher will focus on reviewing this paper, titled "The Future of American Soft Power," and will be divided into an abstract and introduction, followed by a review of the article and sources.