Sciences Journal Of Physical Education

Organizational efficiency is considered one of the fundamental variables that determine the extent to which instructors succeed in achieving educational objectives, as it directly affects the quality of lesson implementation, particularly in football instruction, which requires precise time management, appropriate distribution of activities, and effective management of students and instructional situations. The research problem emerged from the researchers’ observation of noticeable variation in the quality of football lessons delivered by instructors, raising questions about the relationship between this variation and the level of organizational efficiency among instructors. The study aimed to identify the relationship between the organizational efficiency of football instructors and teaching quality in Colleges of Physical Education and Sports Sciences at Iraqi universities. The significance of the study lies in improving teaching practices and enhancing educational efficiency. The researchers adopted the descriptive correlational approach due to its suitability to the nature of the research problem. The research population consisted of (160) football instructors working in Colleges of Physical Education and Sports Sciences at Iraqi universities during the academic year (2023–2024), all of whom had more than five years of teaching experience in football courses. The findings revealed a statistically significant correlation between organizational efficiency and the quality of lesson implementation, indicating that improving organizational efficiency positively enhances teaching quality. Accordingly, the researchers recommend the inclusion of training programs aimed at developing the organizational competencies of football instructors in Colleges of Physical Education and Sports Sciences in order to improve the quality of educational outcomes.

The study aimed to design an educational program based on interactive educational media that is compatible with the nature of the basic skills in table tennis, as well as to identify the effect of this program on improving the skill performance of players at Duhok Sports Club. The study also sought to compare the post-test results of the experimental and control groups in order to determine the effectiveness of interactive educational media in enhancing skill performance. The researchers adopted the experimental approach due to its suitability to the nature and objectives of the study. The research sample consisted of (12) table tennis players from Duhok Sports Club, who were equally divided into an experimental group and a control group, with (6) players in each group. Data were collected through pre-tests, followed by the implementation of the educational program using interactive educational media for the experimental group, while the control group was taught using the traditional method. After completing the program, post-tests were conducted. The researchers used the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) to analyze the results using percentage values, the Mann–Whitney test, and the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. The findings revealed that the educational program based on interactive educational media effectively improved the performance of Duhok Sports Club players in the forehand serve and topspin stroke skills. Furthermore, the comparison between the experimental and control groups showed statistically significant differences in favor of the experimental group, demonstrating the superiority of interactive educational media over traditional teaching methods.

The significance of the study lies in designing compound exercises aimed at developing certain defensive skills among youth football players. The research problem was identified through the researcher’s field observations, which revealed limited use of compound exercises for developing defensive skills among youth football players. Therefore, the problem of the study centered on preparing compound exercises to improve the defensive skills of youth football players. The study aimed to design compound exercises for developing defensive skills and to identify their effect on enhancing the defensive performance of youth football players. The researcher hypothesized that compound exercises would have a positive effect on developing certain defensive skills among youth football players. The research population consisted of (20) youth football players from Al-Shomali Club, who were divided into experimental and control groups. The researcher adopted the experimental approach due to its suitability to the nature of the research problem. Homogeneity and equivalence of the sample were established in terms of training age, height, weight, chronological age, and certain defensive football skills.

The remarkable development in athletic performance and sporting achievements witnessed in various sports activities is the result of advances in sports sciences and the adoption of appropriate scientific methods for effectively utilizing human potential. Volleyball is considered one of the most popular sports worldwide due to the excitement, enjoyment, and competitiveness it offers to both players and spectators. The research problem emerged from the importance of volleyball and the researchers’ review of scientific literature and previous studies, which revealed limited attention to this sport and a scarcity of teaching methods used to develop the underhand serve skill. This motivated the researchers to address this issue through a scientific study that could benefit volleyball instructors and contribute to the development of educational curricula. The findings of this study are expected to provide answers to several questions of interest to specialists in this field, while also helping to avoid wasted effort and contributing to future excellence. The study aimed to employ various teaching methods to assist school students in learning the underhand serve skill in volleyball. The researchers adopted the experimental approach due to its suitability to the nature of the study. The research sample consisted of (30) middle school students who were distributed into three groups, with (10) students in each group. After implementing the educational program and conducting the final tests, the researchers found statistically significant differences in the post-test results of the experimental groups. Accordingly, the researchers recommended that volleyball instructors pay greater attention to sports exercises and activities in schools by using diverse teaching methods to enhance both theoretical and practical learning.

The study addressed football and the use of specialized weight-training exercises, as well as their effect on developing the most important biomotor abilities through the physical effort exerted within the training program under investigation. The research problem centered on identifying the effect of a scientifically designed weight-training program implemented by coaches, particularly since many coaches lack sufficient knowledge regarding proper training application and load distribution. The primary objective of the program was to prepare football players, especially those aged (18–20) years, as this age category represents a crucial stage in athletic preparation and development. The study also emphasized the importance of understanding the physical and motor aspects of performance and employing weight-training equipment in accordance with biomotor standards and variables relevant to football players within this age group. The research aimed to design a weight-training program and identify its effect on the most important biomotor abilities of football players aged (18–20) years. The researcher hypothesized that statistically significant differences would appear in the selected biomotor abilities of the research group in the post-tests following the application of specialized weight-training exercises. The researcher adopted the experimental approach using a one-group experimental design that followed a weight-training program. The research population was intentionally selected from the players of Handren Sports Club in Erbil Governorate and consisted of (14) players, while (9) additional players participated in the pilot study and testing procedures. Field tests were conducted to measure several biomotor abilities, including motor speed, transitional speed, agility, and eye–foot coordination. The study also included transfer exercises targeting the leg muscles, calf muscles, chest, shoulders, arms, back muscles, and abdominal muscles. The training program was implemented through (3) training sessions per week from 10/6/2025 to 10/9/2025 at Handren Sports Club Stadium in Erbil and the weight-training hall.

This study aimed to identify the effect of scouting programs on reducing psychological stress among students of the College of Physical Education and Sports Sciences at the University of Diyala, with the aim of improving their intellectual well-being and enhancing creativity in their academic performance. The researcher adopted the experimental approach on a sample of (30) college students aged between (19–20) years who were intentionally selected. Data were collected using a psychological stress scale. The findings, after being presented, analyzed, and interpreted, demonstrated the effectiveness of the scouting program in reducing psychological stress and its social, family, and academic dimensions among the study sample.

The study aimed to identify the level of interactive thinking among third-year students in the College of Physical Education and Sports Sciences at Al-Maarif University, as well as to design educational units based on the Daniel Model for learning the volleyball skills of spiking and blocking among the research sample. The study also sought to determine the effect of the Daniel Model on interactive thinking and on learning the volleyball skills of spiking and blocking among students. The research hypotheses stated that there would be statistically significant differences between the pre-test and post-test results of the control and experimental groups in interactive thinking and in learning the volleyball skills of spiking and blocking. In addition, statistically significant differences were expected between the post-test results of the control and experimental groups in favor of the experimental group. The researcher adopted the experimental approach using a pre-test and post-test design with control and experimental groups due to its suitability to the nature of the research problem. The research sample consisted of (97) third-year morning-study students from the College of Physical Education and Sports Sciences at Al-Maarif University. After administering the scale to the research sample and conducting the required tests, the collected data were statistically analyzed. In light of the findings, the researcher concluded that the Daniel Model played a significant role in learning the volleyball skills of spiking and blocking. The model also encouraged students to rely on self-directed activity and to provide solutions to the questions presented, which increased classroom interaction and directed students’ attention toward the subject matter. This confirmed the model’s emphasis on making the student the center of the educational process. Based on these conclusions, the researcher recommended the necessity of employing the Daniel Model appropriately within educational units, as well as adopting modern instructional models in order to achieve better educational outcomes.

This study aimed to identify and model the structural and causal factors shaping sustainable and learning-oriented student sports in Iraqi schools through the use of the Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL) methodology. The research population consisted of professors and PhD researchers with expertise in student sports and school physical education, from whom (18) experts were purposively selected. Ten major factors were identified through qualitative thematic analysis, including needs assessment, system preparation, enrichment of the educational model, collaborative learning environment, resource sustainability, development of learning opportunities, policies and governance, functions and outcomes, technology integration, and monitoring and evaluation. These factors were analyzed using the DEMATEL methodology to determine their causal relationships, levels of influence, and hierarchical structure. The findings indicated that both needs assessment and the collaborative learning environment functioned as major driving factors influencing system preparation and the development of learning opportunities, in addition to activating linking factors such as resource sustainability, model enrichment, and governance. Furthermore, dependent factors such as functions, technology integration, and evaluation were identified as outcome variables resulting from educational and organizational interventions. The interpretive structural model derived from the DEMATEL methodology revealed a clear multi-level network of interactions, emphasizing that achieving sustainable and participatory student sports requires coordinated efforts across environmental, structural, and behavioral dimensions, as well as effective collaboration among all stakeholders. The proposed framework provides both theoretical and practical guidance for policymakers, educators, and school administrators in promoting sustainable, learning-oriented sports programs and supporting students’ lifelong development.

This study stems from the importance of employing modern instructional models in the field of physical education and sports sciences, particularly the Dunn & Dunn model, which is considered one of the leading approaches in learning style theory. This model emphasizes that each student has a unique way of receiving, processing, and retaining information. The study aimed to design educational units according to the Dunn & Dunn model and to investigate their effect on cognitive achievement and learning the technical performance of the javelin throw among students. The researcher adopted the experimental approach due to its suitability to the nature of the research problem, using a two-group experimental design (experimental and control) with pre-test and post-test measurements. The research population consisted of first-year students at the College of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, University of Diyala, for the academic year (2024–2025), totaling (675) male students distributed across eight sections. The researcher selected section (A) as the control group and section (C) as the experimental group through random sampling, with (35) students in each group. The field procedures included applying the Dunn & Dunn learning styles inventory, cognitive achievement tests, and evaluating the technical performance of the javelin throw. Educational units were designed specifically for the experimental group according to the Dunn & Dunn model at a rate of two units per week, totaling (12) educational units, with each unit lasting (90) minutes. The implementation followed the steps of the Dunn & Dunn model. The results showed statistically significant differences in favor of the post-test of the experimental group, indicating that the educational units based on the Dunn & Dunn model effectively improved cognitive understanding and technical performance of the javelin throw by organizing information in a way that accommodates students’ different learning styles (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile).

Handball is one of the team sports that requires a high level of technical, physical, and mental performance, particularly among youth players who represent the foundation for future sporting development. Shooting is considered one of the most important fundamental skills in handball, as it is the decisive means of scoring goals and therefore requires a high degree of accuracy and efficiency. In this context, it has become necessary to explore effective training methods that contribute to enhancing skill performance and achieving higher levels of shooting accuracy, including the use of specially designed training environments such as structured training fields. Focusing on youth players increases the importance of this study, as this group represents the foundation for building future national teams, and improving their performance at this stage is a key factor in raising the overall level of handball in clubs and national teams. The importance of this research lies in addressing a vital aspect of the training process for handball players, namely the use of a designed training field as an effective tool for improving skill performance, particularly shooting, which is one of the most decisive skills in match outcomes. The study is also significant due to the need for modern training methods that keep pace with advances in sports training sciences, an area that has not been sufficiently addressed in previous Arab studies.

This study aimed to investigate the effect of a training program based on specialized compound exercises using assistive tools on developing certain physical abilities among volleyball middle blocker players. The researchers adopted the experimental approach using a one-group design with pre-test and post-test measurements due to its suitability to the nature of the research problem. The research sample consisted of middle blocker players from Erbil Volleyball Club, while the research tools included a set of standardized physical ability tests, with procedures ensuring validity and reliability to guarantee the accuracy of the results. The training program was designed according to interval training methods (low- and high-intensity), taking into account the physical and skill-related characteristics of the middle blocker position. The program consisted of (24) training units distributed over (8) weeks, with three training units per week, each incorporating assistive tools during the execution of compound exercises to enhance performance quality and improve execution efficiency. After implementing the program and conducting post-tests, the data were analyzed using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for related samples. The results revealed statistically significant differences between the pre-test and post-test in favor of the post-test across all physical abilities under study. The findings also indicated a large effect size of the training program, confirming its high effectiveness in developing the physical abilities of middle blocker players. Accordingly, the researchers recommended incorporating specialized compound exercises with assistive tools into volleyball training programs, emphasizing the design of training units that consider the physical and motor characteristics of middle blocker players, as well as the importance of continuous monitoring of player performance to ensure sustained development and optimal physical performance levels.

The researchers adopted the descriptive approach using the survey method due to its suitability to the nature of the research problem. The research sample consisted of (54) injured football players selected from clubs participating in the Premier League of football in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, for the purpose of completing the scale development procedures and extracting the psychometric properties of the study variables. The research instrument was the development of a Perceived Self-Efficacy Scale. After completing the construction procedures, the study reached several conclusions, most notably that a Perceived Self-Efficacy Scale for injured football players in Premier League clubs in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq was successfully developed. The initial form of the scale consisted of (30) items, and after completing the construction procedures and establishing its psychometric properties, the final version of the scale consisted of (23) items. The score range of the scale was determined to be a minimum of (23) and a maximum of (92). The study recommended applying the scale to injured athletes across various sports in general, and to injured football players in particular, in order to assess the level of perceived self-efficacy among injured players.

The research was conducted to study the hormonal response of aldosterone in regulating sodium and potassium ions in blood serum among (16) football players from Erbil Sports Club. The research procedures included measuring the level of aldosterone hormone and sodium and potassium ions in blood serum at rest and after a 3000 m aerobic effort in football players for comparison purposes. The researchers reached the most important conclusions, which are: a significant increase in the level of sodium ions in blood serum in football players after exertion compared with the resting value; a significant decrease in the level of potassium ions in blood serum in football players after exertion compared with the resting value; and a significant increase in the level of aldosterone hormone in blood serum in football players after exertion compared with the resting value.

The study aimed to design sensory–motor perception exercises to develop the accuracy of jump shooting in football players, as well as to identify the effect of sensory–motor perception exercises on improving the accuracy of jump shooting, and to determine the differences in the post-test results between the control and experimental groups among attacking football players. To achieve these objectives, the researchers adopted the experimental method due to its suitability to the nature and problem of the study. The research population consisted of attacking players at the Specialized Football Center in Baghdad, totaling (16) players. A sample of (12) players was selected using simple random sampling and divided equally into two groups: experimental and control, with (6) players in each group. The pilot study was conducted on Monday (16/6/2025), followed by the pre-test on Wednesday (25/6/2025). The main experiment began on Tuesday (1/7/2025) and continued until Tuesday (30/9/2025), with three training units per week, totaling (36) units. The post-tests were conducted on Friday (3/10/2025). After data collection, the researcher analyzed and discussed the results. The findings showed that jump shooting accuracy was positively affected by sensory–motor perception exercises. Accordingly, the researchers recommended adopting sensory–motor perception exercises due to their effectiveness in developing the accuracy of the jump shooting skill in football players.

The study adopted the descriptive survey method due to its suitability to the nature and problem of the research. The research sample consisted of (130) students from Colleges of Physical Education and Sports Sciences in the universities of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, for the purpose of completing the procedures for constructing the scale and extracting the psychometric properties of the study variables. The research instrument was the construction of a Cognitive Distortions Scale. After completing the construction procedures, the study reached the following conclusions: the initial form of the scale consisted of (50) items, and after completing the construction procedures and extracting the psychometric properties, the final version of the scale consisted of (39) items distributed over five dimensions. The score range of the scale was determined between a minimum of (39) and a maximum of (195). The study recommended improving students’ abilities to make sound decisions based on understanding and analysis to face the challenges of cognitive distortions, which enhances academic and personal success.

To play basketball efficiently, an individual requires physical, technical, tactical, and psychological preparation based on scientific principles over a sufficient period of time in order to enhance performance and reach high levels. Therefore, basketball players need to develop certain aspects of muscular strength, as the nature of basketball performance is highly dependent on these specific physical qualities, which are closely related to skill execution. Plyometric exercises are considered among the most important training methods for developing muscular power required in most sports disciplines, as they improve explosive strength and other strength-related components, including speed-strength. Many coaches and researchers, including Feigenbaum and McFarland (2007), have confirmed that plyometric training enables muscles to produce maximal force in the shortest possible time, which is referred to as power. Plyometric training can be applied using interval and repetition training methods at both high and low intensities, and it is characterized by relatively high intensity while linking strength with speed, making it an ideal method for developing muscular power. Hence, the importance of this research lies in using plyometric exercises with different heights and identifying their effects on several aspects of muscular strength as well as jump shooting performance in basketball players, thereby contributing to the training process in basketball.

The study aimed to investigate the effect of using virtual reality simulation on learning safety skills and first aid in physical education among university students. The researcher adopted the experimental approach using a quasi-experimental design due to its suitability to the nature and problem of the study. The research population consisted of students from Physical Education departments, while the sample included a selected group based on specific criteria. A training program based on virtual reality simulation was developed, in addition to designing a scale to measure safety and first aid skills, with its psychometric properties verified using validity and reliability procedures. Several statistical methods were used, including tests, Cohen’s equation, and internal consistency analysis. The results showed a statistically significant effect of the virtual reality-based training program in improving students’ safety and first aid skills, confirming the effectiveness of immersive simulated environments in enhancing understanding and practical application of skills.

The study aimed to investigate the effect of instructional units based on the free discovery learning method on learning the handstand skill in artistic gymnastics for female students. The researcher adopted the experimental approach using a design involving experimental and control groups due to its suitability to the nature and problem of the study. The research population was intentionally selected from first-year female students in the College of Basic Education / Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences / University of Diyala, totaling (32) students distributed over two sections (A and H). Section (H) was randomly selected to represent the experimental group, consisting of (15) students, while two students were excluded statistically due to repeated absence. Section (A) represented the control group with (15) students. The pilot sample consisted of two students. The results showed the effectiveness of instructional units based on the free discovery learning method in learning the handstand skill in artistic gymnastics and improving the motor performance of the students. The researcher recommended adopting this method in teaching gymnastics skills due to its ability to develop motor abilities and enhance creative thinking among learners.

The spike skill in volleyball is defined as striking the ball with both hands with force and speed, sending it over the net into the opponent’s court in a legal manner. The purpose of the spike skill in volleyball is to score a point or regain the serve. If volleyball were played without the spike skill, the game would have remained limited to simple ball passing between players and placing the ball in empty areas of the opponent’s court, which would have led to excessively long matches due to the high level of modern defensive techniques and the ability of teams to take proper positions without leaving gaps for easy scoring opportunities. Therefore, the spike skill emerged as one of the fundamental offensive skills that contributes to team superiority. It requires players with specific physical and motor characteristics such as quick decision-making, good judgment, self-confidence, jumping ability, leg muscle strength, speed, agility, and motor coordination, in addition to accurate ball placement, proper landing, and readiness for defense. The aim of the research is to identify the relationship between the performance of the spike skill in volleyball and certain motor abilities among third-year students.

The study aimed to develop a proposed administrative unit for schools of gifted karate in sports clubs in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq by identifying the objectives of sports clubs and the extent of their alignment with the objectives of gifted karate schools, as well as determining job functions, responsibilities, and a proposed job description within the organizational structure of these schools. It also sought to define job duties, performance standards, communication channels, relationships, and the participation of coaches and administrators in setting school objectives. The researcher adopted the descriptive approach using the survey method due to its suitability to the nature and problem of the study. The study sample consisted of (74) coaches and administrators working in karate clubs in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, of whom (15) individuals were selected for the pilot study. The researcher collected the questionnaires, organized them into data sets, and prepared them for statistical analysis to extract the results.

This study aimed to investigate the effect of flipped learning supported by sequential practice and random practice on learning some basic volleyball skills for students, as well as to identify the most effective instructional method for teaching these skills. The researcher employed the experimental method due to its suitability to the nature and problem of the study. The research population consisted of third-year students in the Department of Physical Education at the College of Basic Education – University of Garmian, for the academic year (2024–2025), totaling (29) students. The sample consisted of (20) students divided into two groups: an experimental group and a control group. The results indicated that flipped learning supported by sequential and random practice had a positive effect on learning basic volleyball skills among students. In addition, integrating flipped learning with sequential and random practice led to greater effectiveness in skill acquisition. The experimental group (flipped learning supported by sequential and random practice) outperformed the control group in learning basic volleyball skills. The researcher recommended the use of flipped learning combined with sequential and random practice during the teaching of basic volleyball skills, and its inclusion within instructional units to achieve faster learning and better utilization of time and effort.

Universities are witnessing a clear expansion in sports activities, making sports units an essential component of the administrative and academic system. In light of the ongoing transformations in the higher education system and the increasing adoption of quality assurance and academic accreditation standards by many universities, sports activity units are required to implement modern evaluation methods that align with quality requirements. Effective performance measurement depends on clear standardized indicators, reliable data collection tools, and precise analytical procedures that support evidence-based decision-making in accordance with modern quality standards. However, many universities still rely on traditional evaluation methods that do not provide accurate indicators for performance improvement based on quality requirements. Therefore, there is a growing need for professional evaluation systems capable of accurately diagnosing the current situation and identifying strengths and weaknesses to support continuous improvement. This study aims to analyze the effectiveness of these systems in the university sports environment by examining implementation practices and the perspectives of staff members. The study concluded that the standards of the professional evaluation system are clear and well understood by staff in university sports units and departments, reflecting the robustness of its theoretical foundation. The study also recommended enhancing the efficiency of implementers through continuous training programs focusing on evaluation methods, performance measurement techniques, and reducing bias.

Sport has emerged as an effective instrument for addressing complex social issues, particularly in regions affected by poverty, violence, and armed conflict. This approach, known as Sport for Development and Peace (SDP), has received extensive support from key stakeholders in peacebuilding and development, including the United Nations, international agencies, and non-governmental organizations. Sport is distinguished by its unique capacity to transcend cultural and social boundaries, making it a powerful mechanism for fostering social dialogue, strengthening trust, and enhancing community cohesion. This paper aims to explore the role of sport in peacebuilding and development, with particular emphasis on its practical applications in conflict-affected contexts such as Iraq.
Sport has long played a significant role in shaping societies and influencing relationships among individuals and groups. Historically, perspectives on sport have varied considerably. While some regard it merely as a competitive activity aimed at achieving victory and demonstrating superiority, others view it as a meaningful tool for promoting social cohesion and peacebuilding. The English writer George Orwell famously described sport as “war without shooting,” suggesting that it may foster hostility, fanaticism, and a desire for dominance. However, such a negative interpretation reflects only one dimension of sport’s multifaceted nature, as it can equally serve as a platform for promoting positive values such as cooperation, mutual understanding, and respect.
In practice, sport possesses a distinctive ability to bridge cultural, political, and religious divides, thereby functioning as an effective mechanism for promoting peace and development in conflict-affected societies. This potential has been widely recognized by international organizations, including the United Nations and the International Olympic Committee, which have adopted the Sport for Development and Peace (SDP) framework. This strategy seeks to utilize sport as a tool for addressing pressing social challenges such as poverty, inequality, and violence, while simultaneously fostering social cohesion in deeply divided communities.

The aim of this paper is to identify the effect of the (Needham) model with auxiliary tools on the development of motor proficiency and the learning of dribbling, receiving, and passing skills in indoor football (futsal) among third-year female students at the College of Physical Education and Sports Sciences. The researchers adopted the experimental method using a design of two equivalent groups (experimental and control) with pre- and post-tests, due to its suitability to the nature and problem of the research. The sample consisted of (30) female students, equally divided into two groups of (15) students each.
The (Needham) model with auxiliary tools was applied to the experimental group, while the control group followed the traditional curriculum. A motor proficiency test for the skills of dribbling, receiving, and passing in futsal was used to measure performance levels before and after the implementation of the instructional units. The data were statistically processed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
The results showed statistically significant differences between the pre-test and post-test in both groups. Furthermore, the experimental group demonstrated a statistically significant superiority over the control group in the post-test results. The researchers concluded that the (Needham) model with auxiliary tools is an effective instructional approach for developing motor proficiency and learning the skills of dribbling, receiving, and passing in indoor football (futsal) among female students.

Improving the training level of any player cannot be achieved whether physically, tactically, or psychologically without mastering the technical performance of all basic and complex skills of the game. The game is characterized by a fast pace, rapid transition from defense to attack, sudden movements, and frequent changes of direction, all of which require muscular coordination. Therefore, the researcher aimed to examine the contribution of muscular coordination to the performance of defensive skills. The research problem sought to answer the following questions: What is the level of muscular coordination among young basketball players? What is the level of performance of some defensive skills among young basketball players?
The study aimed to identify the level of muscular coordination and to investigate the relationship between muscular coordination and the performance of selected defensive skills. The sample consisted of 20 players from Al-Hilla Club and Al-Tadhamun Club, selected purposively. The results revealed a significant relationship between muscular coordination and some defensive skills. In light of the findings, the researcher recommends that basketball coaches in the Iraqi league give greater attention to defensive skills, design specialized training programs, and focus on developing specific endurance in young basketball players.

The research problem stems from the researcher’s observation that some teaching methods rely heavily on the instructor’s academic experience and may not adequately match the learners’ abilities when studying and practicing football with sufficient time to master its skills. This often results in students becoming passive recipients of instructions without adequate opportunities to develop their skill levels. Therefore, there is a need to employ instructional exercises based on the cooperative learning method, which may contribute to improving the performance of some basic football skills among students at the University of Diyala. The study aims to investigate the effect of skill-based exercises using the cooperative learning method on learning some basic football skills among first-year students in the College of Physical Education and Sports Sciences at the University of Diyala. The researcher adopted the experimental method as it is appropriate for the nature and objectives of the study. The population consisted of first-year students in the College of Physical Education and Sports Sciences at the University of Diyala, while the sample included (30) students who were randomly divided into two groups, experimental and control, with (15) students in each group. The researcher conducted pilot studies, identified the skills under investigation, administered pre-tests, implemented the instructional training program, and then conducted post-tests. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The results indicated that the cooperative learning-based skill exercises had a positive effect on learning some basic football skills among students of the University of Diyala.

The recent continuous development and change witnessed in volleyball, whether in tactical or training aspects, has directed the game toward greater specialization in performance, whereby each player has become specialized in a particular skill according to his abilities and potential. Each specialization requires motor, physical, and anthropometric characteristics that differ in level from one specialization to another, depending on the requirements of the playing position. Sports training is characterized by its individual nature, meaning that training is based on taking into account individual differences in terms of level, age, gender, or type of sport practiced.
Specialized roles in volleyball regulate players’ movements and assign each player to the position in which he performs best, in order to reduce variability and enable the player to reach the highest levels of mastery and precision, as well as to better control non-standard situations during the execution of technical skills. However, control over performance in an ideal manner is generally limited in most skills, except for the serve. The execution of other skills depends on the opponent or the teammate; even when teammates facilitate skill execution, the opponent often does not cooperate and may instead create difficult situations by delivering challenging balls in many cases.
The selection of volleyball players is often based on the coach’s personal experience or momentary performance outcomes, without sufficient reliance on comprehensive scientific criteria that consider individual differences and the requirements of each playing position. This may sometimes lead to poor player utilization, which negatively affects both player development and overall team performance.
Accordingly, the research problem is formulated in the following question: Are there clear and significant differences among volleyball players according to different playing positions in selection and classification criteria in terms of physical, skill-related, and anthropometric characteristics

This research aims to identify the effect of two squat exercise levels, the half squat and the quarter squat, on developing explosive power and transitional speed in young basketball players. The researcher adopted an experimental approach using a two-group design. The research sample consisted of 12 young basketball players from Al-Adhamiya Club, who were randomly assigned to two equivalent experimental groups of six players each. The first group underwent a training program using the half squat exercise, while the second group underwent a training program using the quarter squat exercise. The program was implemented for eight weeks, with three training sessions per week. The vertical jump test was used to measure explosive power, and the 20-meter sprint test was used to measure transitional speed. Pre- and post-tests were administered to all participants under standardized conditions. The researcher also used appropriate statistical methods, including the arithmetic mean, standard deviation, and the paired and unpaired samples t-test, using the bag test. Statistical Analysis (SPSS).
The research results showed statistically significant differences between the pre- and post-tests in explosive power and transition speed, favoring the post-test in both groups. The results also demonstrated the superiority of the group that used the quarter squat exercise in developing both explosive power and transition speed compared to the group that used the half squat exercise.
The researcher concluded that the quarter squat exercise is more effective in developing physical abilities related to rapid and explosive performance in basketball, due to its alignment with the angles of movement and the nature of muscular work in the game. The researcher recommended the inclusion of this exercise in training programs for young basketball players, while adhering to the principle of specific training when designing training loads.